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PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. 
REPORTS OF THE UNITED STATES COMMISSIONERS, 



GENERAL SURVEY OF THE EXHIBITION ; 



WITH A REPORT ON THE 



CHAEACTER AID COIDITIOI 



OF THE 



UNITED STATES SECTION 



r 



/ 



WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 

1868. 



PARTS UMYERSAL EXPOSITION, 1867. 

LIST OF UOTTED STATES C0MMISSI0:N^EKS. 

K M. Beckwith, President of the Oommission. 

Professor F. A. P. Barnard, of Kew York. 

Professor J. Lawrence Smith, of Kentucky. 

Professor J. P. Lesley, of Pennsylvania. 

J. P. Ejennedy, of Baltimore. 

S. B. EuaGLES, of 'New York, 

A. S^ Hewitt, of I^ew York. 

William Slade, of Ohio. 

James H. Bowen, of Illinois. 

Paran^Steyens, of Massachusetts. 

A. T. Stewart, of New York. 

O. B. Norton, of New York. 

W. J. Valentine, of London. 

Dr. T. W. Evans, of Paris. 

F." Leslie, of Kew York. 

H. F. Q. d'Aligny, mining engineer, of Michigan. 

E. K. Mudge, of Massachusetts. 

A. B. BuDD, of NcAv York. 

0. B. Seymour, of ^N^ew York. 

0. E. Goodwin, of Paris. 

0. K. Garrison, of IS^ew York. 

EoBERT Berney, of Paris. 

J. E. Freese, of IS^ew Jersey. 

HOIs^OEAEY OOMMISSIO:N^EES. 

Dr. A. Thompson, of ]S'ew York. 

M. P.'^WiLDER, of Massachusetts. 

L. F. Mellen, of Alabama. 

Professor S. F. B. Morse, of New York. 

J. P. Eeynolds, of Illinois. 

W. J. Flagg, of Ohio. 

Professor J. T. Frazer, of Pennsylvania. 

E. 0. CowDiN, of i^ew York. 

G. S. Hazard, of l^ew York. 

Dr. W. E. Johnston, of Paris. 

P. Barry, of Kew York. 

J. H. Chadwick, of Massachusetts. 

Professor J. W. Hoyt, of Wisconsin. 

William H.'-Auchincloss, civil engineer, of New York. 

J. Archer, of Missouri. 



IV SECTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 



EXECUTIVE. 

N. M. Beckwith, Oommissioner General and President of the Com- 
mission. 
A. P. MuLAT, W. C. GuNNELL, Engineers and Architects. 
J. K Proeschel, Secretary. 
J. C. Derby, United States Agent, l^ew York. 



LIST OF THE MEMBEES OF THE INTER:N^ATI0]^AL JURY 
ALLOTTED TO THE UNITED STATES. 

Charles C. Perkins, new order of awards. 

W. T. HoppiN, Group I, classes 1 and 2. 

J. P. E^NNEDY, Group I, class 3. ' 

E. M. Hunt, Architect, Group I, class 4. 

Frank Leslie, (supplemented by Dr. T. W. Evans,) Group I, class 5. 

W. A. Adams, (supplemented by W. T. Hoppin and Dr. T. W. Eyans,) 
Group II, class 9. 

J. E. Freese, (supplemented by Dr. T. W. Eyans,) Group II, class 11. 

Professor F. A. P. Barnard, Group II, class 12. 

William Slade, Group III, class 20. 

Professor J. Lawrence Smith, Yice-President of Jury, Group Y. 

Professor J. P. Lesley, (supplemented by Professor T. S. Hunt,) 
Groui) YI, class 51. 

C. E. Goodwin, Engineer, Group YI, class 52. 

J. E. HoLI^IES, Engineer, Group YI, class 54. 

H. F. Q. d'Aliony, Engineer, Group YI, class 57. 

J. Debeauyias, Engineer, Associate Juror in Group YI, class 54. 

J. P. Eeynolds, Juror on Agricultural Trials at BiUancourt. 



PREFACE. 



The examinatiou of products and making awards was committed to 
international juries, numbering in all six hundred members. 

The number of jurors taken from each nation was in proportion to the 
ground occupied by each in the Exhibition, and the general commissioner 
of each nation nominated the jurors allowed to his national section. 

The organization comprised one special jury, ninety-four juries of 
classes, ten juries of groups, and a superior council. 

The work was divided and distributed among them as follows : 

I. The subjects which were presented for the new order of recompenses, 
intended for persons, establishments, or localities, which, by organization 
or si^ecial institutions, have developed harmony among co-operators and 
produced in an eminent degree the material, moral, and intellectual well- 
being of the workmen, were submitted to a special jiuy of twenty-ii^^e 
members, whose decision was final. 

II. The examination of Group IS'o. 1, comi^rising the five classes of fine 
arts, was committed to four separate juries, whose reports were subject 
to revision and adjustment by a group jury formed by the four class 
iuries united, numbering sixty-four members, whose decision was final. 

III. The remaining ninety classes of products were submitted to the 
inspection of the corresponding ninety class juries, whose work was 
subject to revision by the group juries and superior council. 

Each class jiuy elected from its own body a president, vice-president, 
and reporter. 

The nine group juries were composed of the presidents and reporters 
of the ninety class juries, with the addition of a president and two vice- 
presidents to each group jury, not taken from the class jimes, but speci- 
ally appointed by the respective general commissioners of the national 
sections to which these appointments were allotted. The secretary for 
each group was appointed by the imj)erial commission. 

The superior council was formed of the presidents and vice-presidents 
of the nine group jimes, presided by one of the vice-presidents of the 
imi)erial commission. 

Members. 

IV. The organization thus comjirised — 

One special jiuy on new order 25 

One class and groui) jury on fine arts 64 

Mnety class juries, numbering in all 483 

Nine group jiu-ies, numbering — 

Presidents and vice-presidents of classes 180 

Added, nine presidents and eighteen Aice-presidents 27 27 

207 



PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Members. 



One superior eoimcil — 

Presidents and vice-presidents of groups 



27 



One presiding- officer added 1 1 

28 
Total 600 



V. The duties of the class juries were to examine the products in 
detail in their respective classes, and make lists of the exhibitors whose 
products they considered deserving of awards, naming the award they 
proposed for each, and the reason of it, which comx^leted their work. 

The reports on products and exhibitors thus drawn up were passed to 
the gToup juries, whose duty it was to revise them, concurring in the 
recommendations of the class jiu^ors as far as approved, modifying the 
parts not approved, and sending them in this form to the superior 
council. 

The duty of the superior council was to decide upon the whole num- 
ber of awards to be made, and the number of each gTade of awards, for 
which purposes they had a limited authority to add to the whole number 
wliich had been recommended, and power to diminish the whole number 
called for by the juries. Having determined the whole number and the 
grades, they apportioned the numbers and grades to each grou}) for dis- 
tribution, and in this form returned the work to the respective group 
juries, whose remaining duty it was to adjust the awards made to the 
numbers and grades thus placed at their disposal, retrenching the names, 
if any in excess of their means; and this adjustment was linal. 

The classification of i^roducts adopted by the imx^erial commission hav- 
ing been made known two years in advance, and the national allotments 
of jm^ors made pubhc at an early period, ample time had been given for 
the selection of jurors qualified to appreciate the particular class of pro- 
ducts on which each was to be placed. 

A more highly competent body of experts in the i>roducts of every 
industrial art and science was probably never assembled for a similar pur- 
pose. The rapidity of their appreciations, in many cases, was not in con- 
formity with the views of exhibitors, who thought more time and exi)la- 
nation would have made their products better understood. But men 
devoted to special studies, familiar with first principles, and acquainted 
with 'their application, modified by human skill, in almost every form, 
seldom meet with a product in their line so entirely ncAv in i)rinciple, so 
ingenious in design, or so complicated in structm^e, as to make it difficult 
for them to arrive at a correct opinion upon its general merits in a short 
space of time. Exceptions occur, but the inventive skill of producers 
rarely exceeds the comprehension of experts, and the general accuracy 
of the conclusions of the jiuies Avill, witliout doubt, be proved by expe- 
rience and largely confirmed by public opinion. 



PREFACE. i 

In the ceaseless struggle to gratify liiimaii wants, scientific, mechan- 
ical, and industrial progress are developed unequally in different conn 
tries and in difterent localities of the same country. Bringing together 
the best fruits of industry and skill from all regions facilitates the 
exchange and diffusion of the arts and methods of production, and 
equalizes the common stock of intelligence. All are gainers in the 
highly civilized commerce which consists in the gratuitous exchange of 
useful ideas and practical knowledge, together with the methods of their 
application in every form to ameliorate the material and moral condition 
of mankind. 

The united verdict of the international jury, composed in great part 
of professional men of known skill and established reputations, is the 
ablest and soundest judgment that will be pronounced on the relative 
condition of the arts of industry at the present time, as displayed in the 
products of all countries. 

Mnety-five juries, working simultaneously and independently, and 
rendering in every department separate reports, produce, when collated, 
revised, and confirmed, an aggregate verdict of reliable value. 

The relative condition of national industries thus indicated will be 
most easily and readily understood by a tabular statement, divested of 
the embarrassment of superfluous figures and variable numbers, show- 
ing merely the percentage of awards to exhibitors. 

Percentage was not the object, but is the inevitable residt, of awards, 
and it is the most unquestionable expression, in a concentrated and reli- 
able form, of the united opinion of the whole body of jurors, the imx^ort- 
ance of which is not diminished by its being unforeseen and unx^remedi- 
tated. 

The table which follows shows in the first line the percentage of awards 
of each gTade, and the total average percentage. The percentage of 
awards in each grade results from a comparison of the whole number of 
awards in each grade with the whole number of exhibitors in the Exhibi- 
tion ; and the total average percentage results from a comparison of the 
whole number of awards with the whole number of exhibitors ; this total 
average residts equally from the sum of the averages of the grades. 

The subsequent lines show in like manner the percentage applicable to 
each country. In these the percentages of awards in each grade result 
from the whole number of awards in each grade, made to the country 
named ^ compared with the whole number of exhibitors from that country; 
and the total average percentage of each country results from a com- 
parison of the total number of awards and total number of exhibitors 
pertaining to the country named, or equally from tlie sum of the pre- 
ceding x>ercentages. 

The lines read horizontally show, therefore, the percentage of grades 
and awards to each country, and the columns read vertically present the 
relative grades and awards of each country compared with the other 
countries. 



8 



PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 



The percentage of awards to the exhibitors of the reniaining twenty- 
live countries falls below the succeeding. 

PERCENTAGE OF AWARDS TO EXHIBITORS. 



Name of couutrj-. 






-5 S 






General average percentage of awards to 
exhibitors 

Special average : 

France 

United States 

Austria 

Prussia and Nortli G-ermany 

Belgium 

Russia 

Sw^itzerland 

Great Britain and colonies 

Italy 

Spain 



0. 00175 



0. 00306 
0. 00932 
0. 00095 
0. 00226 
0. 00161 
0. 00073 
0. 00092 
0.00178 
0. 00122 
0. 00000 



0. 02221 

0. 04272 
0. 03171 
0. 02722 
0. 02890 
0. 01834 
0. 01538 
0. 01944 
0. 01829 
0. 00589 
0. 00794 



0. 08113 



0.12759 



0. 11265 



34.53 



0. 14742 
0. 134.32 
0. 12273 
0. 10760 
0. 10518 
0. 06593 
0. 07500 
0. 00217 
0. 02826 
0. 02950 



0. 20086 
0. 17910 
0. 18194 
0. 18497 
0. 15428 
0. 14945 
0. 11388 
0. 09531 
0. 06311 
0. 07630 



0.16166 
0. 17350 
0.14326 
0. 15028 
0. 15326 
0. 10915 
0. 10926 
0. 08338 
0. 09338 
0. 07333 



55.57 
52.79 
47.60 
47.40 
43.26 
34.06 
31.85 
26.10 
19.18 
18.70 



The ardor of competition in a great international assembly, with the 
eagerness and suspense which precede the declaration of awards after 
that event, display the reaction common to all excitements. The awards 
of the successful, so desirable by anticipation, diminish in importance 
by possession, and seldom give satisfaction; while the unsuccessful, mth 
more courage or more philosophy, find little difficulty in adopting the 
conclusion of their friends who have succeeded, that the whole affair 
has been greatly overrated. 

IsTeither of these impressions is probably very accurate. Experience 
on former occasions has in the main justified the awards of the jimes, 
and they have served not only to confirm established reputations, but 
to bring into more prominent notice the excellent products of thousands 
of skilful and worthy producers, who labored previously in comparative 
obscurity, and whose improved fortunes date from those periods. But 
the benefits resulting from this are not limited to the successful exhib- 
itors. They are naturally stimulated to renewed efforts to maintain their 
new positions, which quickens their invention, improves their products, 
and raises their own standards, whilst their rivals and competitors, who, 
if equally skilful, are less lucky, are thereby compelled to work up to 
this higher level. A new spirit is thus breathed into every department 
of industry, and the benefits of increased production, improved qualities 
and varieties, and diminished cost become universal. 

The infiuence of exhibitions in producing the remarkable rise and 
equalization of the industrial arts over a large portion of the civilized 



PREFACE. y 

world, increasing nseftil proclncts and angmenting the growth of com- 
merce, is conspicuons everywhere and oh^ions to every intelligent mind 
which has been tnrned to the subject under cu^cmnstances favorable to 
observation. 

Their effects also in a scientific, economic, and political sense are 
subjects of great interest, but may be with more propriety separately 
considered. 

The high position conceded by the verdict of the juries to American 
industrial products is not due in general to graceful design, fertile com- 
binations of pleasing colors, elegant forms, elaborate finish, or any of 
the artistic qualities which cultivate the taste and refine the feelings by 
awakening in the mind a higher sense of beauty, but it is owing to their 
skilful, direct, and admirable adaptation to the great wants they are 
intended to supi^ly, and to the originality and fertility of invention which 
converts the elements and natural forces to the commonest uses, multiply- 
ing results and diminishing toil. 

The peculiar and valuable qualities of our i)roducts will be adopted and 
reproduced in all parts of Europe, imi)roving the mechanical and indus- 
trial arts, and it is reasonable to expect and gratifying to believe that 
the benefits will be reciprocal, that our products will in time acquire 
those tasteful and pleasing qualities which command more admiration 
and find a quicker and better market than the barely useful. 

The reports of the United States ' commissioners upon the important 
subjects selected by them will imdoubtedly command attention. 

For a general survey of the Exhibition I refer with confidence to the 
able sketches of Commissioner Seymour, written with clearness and free- 
dom, in a flowing and agreeable style, free from the stifihess of technical 
language; and to the observations on the American section, which will 
convey to those interested, especially in that department, correct general 
information on the jiroducts of our own country. 

I refer with equal confidence to the special reports of a more practical 
character, on subjects of particular importance to the great industries 
of the country. Several of these reports are from professional men whose 
established reputations guarantee the thoroughness of their studies and 
the accuracy of their work, whilst the authors who have not yet acquired 
this authority may reasonably expect to obtain it from the just apprecia- 
tion of the public. In this connection I cannot deny myself the i3leasure 
of alluding to the assiduity, the ability, the zeal, and the excellent spirit 
which have animated the commissioners in devoting so long a period to 
labors adapted to promote the common welfare and prosperity of the 
country. 

]N^. M. BECKWITH, 
United States Commissioner General. 

Paeis, January 17, 1868. 



GENERAL SURVEY 



PARIS UMYERSAL EIPOSITIOI OF 1867. 



IXTRODUCTIOX. 

The following report has been prepared iu conformity with the instruc- 
tions from the Department of State, August 20, 1866, which require the 
Commission to make a '^ report presenting a brief general survey of the 
Exhibition, and upon the character and condition of the American depart- 
ment.'' The committee formed for the piu'pose consisted of thi^ee mem- 
bers Messrs. Seymoiu", Evans, and Auchincloss. 

It has been attempted in the follomng pages to present to the reader 
a sketch of one of the most imx)ortant events of tlie nineteenth centiuy, 
and to describe certain objects of general interest in a rapid and, it is 
hoped, popular way. There were 95 classes in the Exposition, many of 
them subdivided into other classes, and all worthy of deep consideration. 
To obtain information, and to collate and compile it, were matters of diffi- 
cidty, and hence absolute bre^dty, although it has been attempted, coidd 
not, in the nature of things, be attained. But details have been avoided ; 
they belong joroperly to the special reports. Nevertheless, it has been 
thought desirable to reproduce in English, from the French official cata- 
logue, some of the introductions to the principal classes. They have been 
prepared Avith the greatest care, contain many interesting i^articulars, and 
offer the latest data on the subjects treated. 

Before concluding their labors the committee think it proper in this 
place to acknowledge the valuable assistance of the Commissioner Gen- 
eral, Mr. E^. M. Beck^^ith, in the preparation of these reports. Involved in 
duties which were alike arduous and ungrateful, because seldom properly 
appreciated, he was able, by unflagging attention to the interests of the 
commission, by great executive ability, unyielding integrity of purpose, 
and inflexible resolution, to render great assistance to exhibitors and to 
all who sought his knowledge and advice. 

To Professor AY. P. Blake, of California, the committee is indebted also 
for much useful matter. 

CHAS. B. SEY.ArOUB, 

Chairman of Committee. 



GENERAL SURVEY. 11 



oegamzatio:n^ and locality. 

The Exposition of 1867 takes its origin from tlie imperial decrees of the 
22d June, 1SG5, and subsequent dates, instituting an International Expo- 
sition, to be opened at Paris on the 1st April, 1867, and placing it under 
the direction of an imperial commission of 60 members, of which the 
Prince Imperial was named president; M. Eouher, minister of state, M. 
Forcade de La Eoquette, minister of commerce and public works, and 
Marshal YaiUant, minister of the imperial household, vice-presidents; and 
M. Leplay, councillor of state, commissioner general. 

The locahty selected for the Exhibition was the Champ de Mars, the 
great military jjarade ground, extending from the military school to the 
Seine, and from the avenue Laboiuxlonnaye to the avenue Suifren, form- 
ing a rectangle of 48 hectares, or 119 acres. To this was annexed the 
island of Billancourt, giving an additional area of 21 hectares, or 52 acres; 
making a total of 171 acres appropriated to the Exposition. Although 
somewhat removed from the most attractive parts of the city, it was easy 
of access ; and being also the property of the government, and without 
any constructions which needed to be removed, it was suitable for the 
intended edifice, and was free from expense on the score of rent. 

The ground was given up by the government on the 28th of September, 
1865, and the first iron pillar of the building was raised on the 3d of 
April, 1866. At the end of the year the structure was comparatively 
ready for the exhibitors. 

It is proper to use the word "comparatively," for there was delay and 
backwardness on many sides; and the opening, although it took x)lace 
on the day and hour announced, w as a regulation rather than a necessity. 
A few only of the groups were in a condition to be fairly i)resented to the 
public, and still less to the jurors whose work was to commence and ter- 
minate within the first 14 days of the opening month. Thanks, however, 
to the efforts of the respective commissions, and the hearty good- will of 
the exhibitors, those who had seen with dismay the condition of the 
building on the day Avhen the Emperor and Empress dedicated it to its 
beneficent and instructive purposes, w'ere certainly the most gladdened 
and surprised to find a fortnight later that order had sprung from chaos, 
and that the vast idea of this colossal undertaking had crystallized into 
an object of beauty. 

As the season progressed the enclosure known as the Park advanced 
in clearness and interest. Structures that ranged from the nomadic hut 
of an Esquimaux to the gilded i)alace of a sultan, sprang up on every 
side. These buildings, being constructed by the various governments 
represented, were eminently national, and, in many instances, were faith- 
ful reproductions of edifices that are of world-wide fame. They were 
rendered additionally interesting from the fact that, to whatever use they 
were devoted, the attendants, either as workmen or servitors, were almost 
invariably national. It was thus possible in many ways to visit the 



12 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

habitations and witness the customs of the most remote as of the most 
intimate nations of the earth — a study which can hardly he considered 
inferior to any other that was afforded on this occasion. It may be men- 
tioned in this place that^ amidst all the allurements of strange designs 
and blazing decorations, the simple structures contrived for cheapness, 
and intended for working-men and their families, attracted not only the 
attention of the public, but won the highest prizes of the juries. It may 
surely be added as a matter of congratulation that the Emperor Napoleon, 
who planned this immense and splendid show, was himself a competitor 
in the simple walks of useful ingenuity. He gave the world a palace of 
unequalled splendor, and contributed himself a design for small dwell- 
ings, suitable for the commonest order of laborers. The latter was so 
excellent that it received the principal prize awarded in such competition. 

Thus in a short time the appearance of the Champ de Mars was totally 
changed. It was no longer an arid, gravelly surface without vegetation 
or adornment. It became a place where the palace and the cottage, often 
together by accident, were puri)osely put side by side for examination ; 
where the traditions of generations could be contrasted with the latest 
discoveries and experiences of to-day. The vast elliptical building in the 
centre occupied 190,000 yards, or 39 acres. The circumference was 1,G00 
yards, or nearly a mile. Externally the effect was hea^^, and by no 
means imx)osing; but it speedily became apparent that it was admirably 
adapted to the purposes for which it was intended. The entire length 
between the Quai d'Orsay and the military school was 1,125 yards, and 
the width between the two avenues De Labourdonnaye and De Suffren 
515 yards. 

The Exposition was divided into three i:)ortions ; the first, called the 
Park, comprising the palace and structiu'es before referred to, and the 
banks of the Seine; the second, called the Eeserved Garden, containing 
the botanical, horticultural, and piscicultural collections ; the thu^d, called 
BiUancourt, from the name of an island in the Seine, where the agricul- 
tural implements were exhibited. To fiicUitate the practical trials of the 
latter, the Emperor was also good enough to give up to the competitors 
aU the land and crops they required. Thus the mowing machines were 
tried at the Emperor's farm at Fouilleuse, near St. Cloud, and the reapers 
at the imperial establishment at Yincennes. 

PEEYious exhibitio:n^s. 

The Champ de Mars was the site of the first French industrial exhibition, 
lieldin the year 1798. This had 110 exhibitors and lasted three days. Itwas 
succeeded by other exhibitions with a constantly increasing interest 
and number of exhibitors, as will be seen from the annexed table. In 
1820 Belgimn and Holland united in an exhibition at Ghent. Prussia 
held an exliibition at Berlin in 1844, and Austria at Vienna in 1846. 
But the first exhibition which it was proposed to make universal was 



GENERAL SURVEY. 



13 



opened iu London in 1851 at the Crystal Palace, constrncted for the 
purpose. It was followed by an exhibition in New York in 1853, and by 
the Universal Exhibition at Paris in 1855, held in the Palais de I'lndnstrie, 
also specially constrncted for the pmpose, and which was the scene of 
the distribution of the prizes by the Emperor on the 1st of July, 1867. 

The second international exliibition in England was opened in 1862 
and covered about 17 acres, exclusive of annexes, and had over 26,000 
exhibitors. 

The relative importance of these different exhibitions, the space covered 
by each, and nimiber of exhibitors and visitors as far as ascertained, is 
giA^en in the following table : 



Year. 



Name of country. 



1798 
1801 
1802 
1806 
1819 
1820 
1823 
1827 
1834 
1839 
1844 
1844 
1846 
1849 
1851 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1862 
1867 



France 

France 

France 

France, (empire) 

France, (restoration) 

Belgium and Holland 

France 

France 

France, (Louis Philippe) 

France 

France 

Prussia, (Berlin) 

Austria, (Vienna) 

France, (republic) 

London, (great exhibition of all nations) 

New York, (world's fair) 

Germany, (Munich) 

France, (Paris universal exhibition) 

London, (international) 

France, (exposition universelle) 



23 



88, 027 



118, 786 
119,994 
694, 153 



110 

220 

540 

1,422 

1, 662 



1,642 
1,695 

2,447 
3,281 
3,960 



5,494 
13, 937 



23, 954 
28, 653 
50, 226 



23 

80 

254 

610 

869 



1,091 
1,254 
1,785 
2,305 
3,253 



4,000 
5,248 



10,811 



THE BUILDING. 



The buildings erected for previous great exhibitions are generally 
known as palaces, but the structure on the Champ de Mars had nothing 
in its appearance, as our x:)revious remarks have hinted, suggestive of the 
name. In its plan and construction architectural effects were subordin- 
ated to the great end in view — the exhibition of the objects of all nations 
in such a manner as to invite and facilitate comparison and study. This 
end was attained by the classification of the objects in groups, and their 
arrangement in a corresponding number of galleries disposed side by side 
concentrically. As three out of the ten groups — such as the agricidtm^al 
exhibitions, live produce, &c. — could not be properly placed in the build- 



14 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

ing, only seven galleries were required and constructed. These galleries^ 
ellipsoidal in form and one story in lieiglit, composed tlie building. 

The ground plan was not exactly an ellipse, it was rather a rectangle 
with rounded ends and the sides running parallel with the adjoining 
avenues. The exterior lines of the two sides ran straight for a space of 120 
yards, one facing the quarter of the Gros-Oaillou, the other the quarter of 
Grenelle, and were united by two demi-circumferences of equal diameter, 
with one side of the rectangle facing the bridge of Jena, and the other 
the military school. An open space in the centre, prettily ornamented 
with flowers, statues, and fountains, served as the point of radiation for 
the seven enclosing galleries. It was also the site of a central pavilion 
which contained the exhibition of the weights, measures, and moneys of 
all countries. 

In the construction of this building upwards of 370,000 cubic metres of 
son had to be removed to make room for foundations, drains, air pas- 
sages, and water-pipes. The outer circle was excavated so as to give a 
succession of vaulted cellars built of stone and concrete and lime with 
cement. The two interior galleries of the building were built of stone 
and the seven others of iron. 

The outer circle, devoted to the engines and machinery, was the highest 
and the broadest of all. Its vndtli was 114 feet, and its height, to the 
top of the nave, 81 feet. The roof was formed of corrugated iron and 
supported by 176 iron pillars (each weighing 21,000 pounds) upon which 
the arches or ribs were placed. Along the centre of the whole length of 
this gTeat machinery gaUery or arcade an elevated platform was sup- 
ported upon iron columns, and afforded a safe and convenient promenade 
and point of view for the machinery beloAV. It appeared to support the 
line of shafting by which motion was communicated to the various 
machmes, but this shafting was sustamed by a separate frame. 

The supply of water for this enormous structure, and for the Park and 
its various buildings and fountains, was obtained from the Seine, and 
was raised by powerful steam pumps to a reservoir placed upon the high 
ground on the opposite bank. This reservoir had a capacity of over 
4,000 cubic yards of water, and was made water-tight by a lining of con- 
crete. The main conduit leading from this reservoir crossed the Seine 
by the bridge of Jena, and traversed the whole length of the Champ de 
Mars. Complete details of the hydraulic service and of the ventilation 
and mechanical appliances generally mil be found in the subsequent part 
of this report under class 52, Groui) YI. 

AYENUES OF COMMUOTCATIOI^ AND CLASSIFICATION OF 

OBJECTS. 

The avenues of communication within the bidldings and in the Park 
may be best understood by reference to the map. Both the Park and the 
building were bisected through the entire length by one straight avenue 
leading fi"om the grand entrance opposite the bridge of Jena to the front of 
the military school at the opposite extremity of the Champ de Mars. This 



GENERAL SURVEY. 15 

was crossed at right angles by three other broad avenues leading to 
the side entrances ui)on the public streets. These principal avenues, 
together with several others at each end^ radiating from the central gar- 
den to the outer circle, intersected each gallery at right angles, and 
divided the whole building into IG sectors of nearly equal area. 

The objects exhibited by France and its colonies occupied seven of 
these sectors ; England filled two and a half, and the United States one- 
third of one, exclusive of the displays in the buildings outside. 

It will be seen that the form and arrangement of the building and the 
disposition of its contents was in harmony with the classification and 
grouping adopted by the imperial commission. 

This classification included 10 groups, subdivided into 95 classes, as 
follows : 

Group I. — Works of art, classes 1 to 5. 

Group II. — Api^aratus and applications of the liberal arts, classes 6 
to 13. 

Group III. — Furniture and other objects for the use of dwellings, 
classes 14 to 26. 

Group TV. — Clothing, including fabrics, and other objects worn upon 
the person, classes 27 to 39. 

Group Y. — Products, raw and manufactiu^ed, of mining industry, for- 
estry, &c., classes 10 to 16. 

Group YI. — Apparatus and process used in the common arts, classes 
47 to 66. 

Grouj) YII. — Food, fresh or preserved, in various states of prepara- 
tion, classes 67 to 73. 

Group YIII. — Live stock and specimens of agricultural buildings, 
classes 71 to 82. 

Group IX. — Live produce and specimens of horticultural works, classes 
83 to 88. 

Group X. — Articles exhibited with the special object of improving the 
physical and moral condition of the people, classes 89 to 95. 

To each of the first seven of these groups a gaUery of the building 
was assigned. Thus Group I, works of art, occui^ied the inner circle or 
gallerj' 1, and so on to Grouj) YII, which occui)ied the outer circle. 

By following one of these galleries the observer passed in succession 
among the productions similar in kind of different countries. By fol- 
lowing the avenues he i^assed successively through the different produc- 
tions of the same country. The student therefore coidd investigate the 
condition of any particular art or industry as manifested by different 
nations, or he could i^ursue his studies geographically and note the char- 
acteristic productions of each country, and compare them as a whole 
with those of other countries. The arrangement facilitated exhibition, 
prompted study and comparison, and in these respects fuUy realized the 
intentions of its authors. 

After the adoption of this classification, it was decided to devote a 



16 



PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 



portion of the inner gallery, next to the central garden, to antiquities, so 
as to give a history of human labor. 

The order in which the various countries were ranged in the building, 
the space occupied, and the number of exhibitors from each country, are 
shown in the following table : 



Name of country. 



Space occupied in square metres. 



In the Palace. In the Park. On the shore. 



Total. 



France 

Ilepubj[ic tJf Andorra 

Holland 

Luxembourg 

Belgium 

Prussia and North Germany 

Hesf e 

Badfen 

Wurtemburg 

Bavaria 

Austria 

Switzerland , 

Spain 

Portugal 

Greece 

Denmark 

Sweden 

Norway 

Russia 

Italy 

Rome 

Roumania 

Turkey 

Egypt 

China 

Japan 

Persia 

Siam 

Tunis 

Morocco 

United States 

Brazil 

Republics of Cent'l and South America. 

Hawaii 

Great Britain, f 

Interior promenades • ^ 

Central garden 

Reserved garden 

Vestibules 

Restaurants 

Roads and warehouses 

Floating exposition 



65, 228. 84 
2.00 

1, 995. 84 

6.60 

7, 325. 60 
12, 365. 31 

4, 396. 26 

8, 381. 25 

2, 855. 37 
1, 771. 88 

759. 38 

759. 37 

1, 012. 50 

1, 940. 62 

3, 037. 50 
3, 459. 37 

709. 38 

663. 02 

1, 187. 53 

587. 55 

1, 784. 18 



890. 22 
3, 576. 95 

1, 387. 82 

23, 033. 42 
3, 472. 47 
5, 882. 65 



Total 



158, 742. 88 



88, 507, 00 
4, 764. 50 



2, 756. 52 



273. 90 
408. 14 



2, 553. 75 



9, 820. 60 
3, 819. 28 
1, 574. 00 
1, 530. 00 



453. 00 
3, 008. 00 

3, 146. 40 

3, 035. 28 
410. 00 

1, 767. 00 

2, 889. 00 
6, 005. 00 

4, 075. 37 

3, 498. 00 
5, 183. 60 

815.20 

12, 137. 20 



48, 350. 00 
77, 792. 96 



1, 175. 04 



1, 053. 00 

10, 308. 44 

6, 300. 00 



156, 492. 36 

2.00 

' 6, 760. 34 

6.60 

16,599.50 

21,773.45 

f 

I 

6, 950. 01 <; 

I 
I 

18, 201. 85 
6, 674. 62 

3, 345. 88 

2, 289. 38 
759. 37 

1, 465. 50 

4, 948. 62 ^ 

6, 183. 90 
6, 494. 62 
1, 119. 38 

2, 430. 02 
4, 076. 53 
6, 592. 55 

r 

t 
5,859.55 s; 

1 

4, 388. 22 ^ 
8, 760. 55 

2,203.02-^ 

36, 345. 66 

3, 742. 47 

5, 882. 65 
48, 350. 00 
77, 792. 96 

1, 053. 00 
10, 308. 44 

6, 300. 01) 



303.817.12 



, 593. 00 



GENERAL SURVEY. 17 



GALLERY OF THE HISTORY OF LABOR. 

It was a liappy tliouglit to so arrange tlie autiqnities as to give a con- 
nected view of tlie progressive development of the arts and form a fitting 
introduction to tlieir present advanced condition. Even the pre-Mstoric 
relics of tlie liiiman race were displayed there to comx:)lete the series. 
The Exposition Avas thus not only of the present, but of the past. It 
gave the history of human labor in various countries from the earliest 
periods, and became to a great degree an exposition of the mental devel- 
opment of the human race. It was impossible to pass successively from 
the inspection of the implements of stone, bronze, iron, and finally of 
steel, withouf recognizing a progressive development of humanity. The 
galleries of antiquities made the Exhibition an unwritten history of civ- 
ilization which every one could read, of whatever nation or language. 
It attracted the peasant and the scholar, and taught history and philos- 
ophy by the contrast of the i)roductions of human labor of all periods 
and countries. 

The French exhibit was the most complete as a whole, and was divided 
by partitions into a series of halls or apartments, so as to more distinctly 
mark tilie dilferent periods. 

The pre-historic period was brought boldly forAvard by the extensive 
collections which have been made in various parts of Eiu-ope during the 
past ten years — such as imx)lements of stone from the bone caverns, peat 
bogs, and from the lake dwellings of Switzerland. 

The cases were filled with enormous spear heads of flints, hatchets 
and other rudely- made implements formed by chipping and without pol- 
ish. These occur in association with the bones and teeth of the extinct 
cave bear, the elephant, and the mastodon, and specimens of these were 
displayed in the same cases. These rudely-made implements are sup- 
posed to belong to the first or earliest stone period. A second or later 
period of the stone age is indicated by imi^lements of a superior finish ; 
such as were ground down to smooth surfaces, and in some instances 
polished. 

All these objects of the pre-historic period were classified and dis- 
lilayed under the direction of a commission with Mr. Edward Lartet at 
the head. The interest attached to the exhibit was gTcatly enhanced by 
the meeting during the progress of the Exposition of the '^ Congres Inter- 
national cTAntJiro})ologle et d/Archeologie FrekistoHqiies^^'' the members of 
which Avere enabled to make studies and comparisons of the various col- 
lections. 

The next hall contained instruments of the bronze i^eriod, extending 
to the Gallo-Eoman. The objects consisted chiefly of cutting instruments, 
agricultural imx^lements, lamps, and objects of ornament, such as brace- 
lets of bronze and of gold, rings and x)ins. Of the latter a large collec- 
tion contained i)ins Avith a shield for the points, and a spiral spring at 
2 u E 



18 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

tlie back almost identical in form with some of the patent pins of tlie 
present day. 

The next hall was devoted to the Celtic and Gallic relics, and contained 
the remarkable golden necklaces from the museum of Toulouse. The 
representation of the work of the middle ages was characterized by a 
variety of church ornaments and relics, such as oak chests, seals, caskets. 
croziers, bronzes set with masses of rock crystal, like those of China and 
Japan ; ivory carvings, illuminated missals of velliun, swords, and chain 
armor. 

The fifth hall contained objects of the sixteenth centiuy, or the Eenais- 
sance period. Here were found curiously fashioned iron locks and keys, 
cutting instruments, jewels, and a few nearly spherical watches. The 
enamels of Limoges occupied a large space, and came in great part from 
the collection of Baron Eothschild. 

At the entrance of the sixth hall, representing the arts of the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries, a curious collection of high-heeled boots 
and shoes attracted considerable attention. Here, also, were seen the 
faiences of Eouen, and the productions of the renowned Pahssy, old fur- 
niture, mirrors, inlaid cabinets, black letter books, and specimens of 
bookbinding. The collections of this period were continued in the halls 
bej^ond, and contained the porcelains of Sevres, richly wrought table 
services of silver, tapestries, miniatures, snuff-boxes, thread lace, and 
elaborately decorated fans. 

Among the curious relics from other countries the most noteworthy 
were the cradle of Charles XII of Sweden, the elaborately fashioned 
trappings of the horse that Mahommed rode in 1331 at the siege of the 
town of Castro el Rio, and a variety of specimens of ancient arms and 
armors. The richest collection of ancient arms was sent from the Impe- 
rial Museum of Austria, and contained a number of guns with ivory 
stocks, richly inlaid with metal, and steel bows, also mounted in ivory. 
Among the ancient ornamental works and jewels of Austria of the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, there was a remarkable display of 
tankards, vases, and goblets of rock crystal, of great size, and showing 
a high degree of taste and skill in the art of the lapidary at that time. 

There were several interesting relics and Avorks of ancient art in the 
English section, among them a table covered witli silver in repousse^ or 
beaten work, belonging to her Majesty Queen Victoria, and another table 
made in 1700. A selection of old armor from the Tower of London occu- 
pied one of the cases, and in another were various specimens of silver 
and gold plate, and tablets of Wedgewood's porcelain. 

Although the collection of anticpiities as a Avhole Avas very large and 
interesting, it could iu)t be regarded as a complete exhibit of tlie progress 
of human labor up to the present time. The wonderful advances made 
in the mechanical arts of the present centmy, and the various applica- 
tions of science to the arts, were not liistorically shown. The collection 
was also deficient in representations of the ancient arts and civilization 
of China, Japan, of Eg^^t, Mexico, Central America, and Peru. 



GROUP I. 



WORKS OF ART. 

Class 1. Paintings in Oil.— Class 2. Other Paintings and Drawings.— Class 3. 
Sculpture, Die-sinking, Stone, and Cameo Engraving.— Class 4. Architectural 
Designs and Models. — Class 5. Engraving and Lithography. 

CLASS 1.— PAmTIKGS IK OIL. 

The interior circle of tlie Exi)ositioii was, as already indicated, devoted 
to works of art. Thus, by an arrangement which, if accidental, was, at 
all events, poetic, we passed from the gross necessities of life such as 
the cereals, the wines, «SjC., to the machinery which represents industrial 
force ; to the manufactures which conduce to individual comfort ; to the 
instriunents which add to the intelligent perception of all natural phe- 
nomena, and so to that last and refining x^hase where the immagination 
excites its most powerful and refining influence. 

The fine arts naturally involve certain cognate professions. Group I 
was therefore made up of five classes, thus tabulated: 1. Paintings in 
oil J 2. Other paintings and drawings; 3. Sculx)ture, die-sinking, stone 
and cameo engraving; 4. Architectural designs and models ; 5. Engrav- 
ing and lithography. The various articles exhibited in these classes 
occupied a considerable but broken space in the Exposition. Several 
nations feeling that the space allotted to them for pictures in the first 
gallery, which, in accordance with the original plan, was subdivided into 
foiu^teen compartments, was inadequate, declined to avail themselves of 
it. They found it preferable to erect structures of their own in the Park. 
The statuary was more houseless than the pictiu'es, and Avas scattered, 
not always disadvantageously for effect, through the entire si'crface of 
the Champ de Mars. The theory on which the central gallery was 
devoted to the fine arts was, perhaps, good, but practically it was open 
to serious objection. The rapidly closing concentric lines had the effect 
of presenting many of the best works at inconvenient angles. This was 
l)articidarly the case in the small portions devoted to foreign countries, 
which, being in the elbows of the building, were exposed to many cross 
lights. Probably no two sections were more unfortunate in this respect 
than the American and English. They occupied the same gaUery and 
worthily. But the United States, ^yit]l nothing to complain of in their 
portion of the gallery itself, were unhappily compelled by the number of 
their contributions to take refuge for the surplus in the adjacent passage, 
called by a ludicrous accident of neighborhood ^'tlie street of Africa." 
In no respect of light or atmosphere could this be considered a fiivorable 



20 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

location ) but it liacl its aclvautages in point of popularity. A large pro- 
portion of tliose who even transiently visited the Exposition passed 
through this artery^ and, it may be presumed from their expressions, 
were gratified with and interested in the display which was provided for 
their examination. 

One-half the entire space — and the best half because the lateral half- 
was occupied by works of art contributed by French artists. It does 
not fall within the province of a brief review like the present to discuss 
the merit of individual pictures, or to contest the claims of the French 
school of art, which most assuredly is capable of taking care of itself, 
and which, without question, was nobly and amply represented. It is 
agreeable to the writers of this report to state this at once, for, from some 
discussions in the preliminary committees appointed on the subject of the 
fine arts, it was understood that the collection, although admirable, did 
not by any means represent the full vigor of the nation. Owing to this 
cause it has been stated by writers of eminence that the display was not 
equal to that made at the Palais de Plndustrie in 1855. 

But it was rich in the French masters who are most known and 
admired in America, many of whom indeed were on the jury and received 
the highest honors that were awarded to the class. Gerome was repre- 
sented by a large and valuable collection of singidarly accurate and 
impressive scenes, depicting for the most part the savage side of eastern 
life or the similar episodes of Roman history. There was nothing from 
this artist, however, that was unknown to Americans. The majority are 
familiar in a photographic form, and several are owned by our private 
collectors who loaned them for tAiQ present occasion. The same remark 
applies to the productions of Meissonier, whose minute masterpieces, 
difficult to obtain and liighly prized by their fortunate possessors, are 
great favorites in America. Each of these masters contributed more 
than a dozen works — children of studios that had been scattered for 
years, but had been brought together by the interest of the Exposition 
and the worthy pride of their creators who gathered them together for 
this solemnity. Gerome and Meissonier represent the most popular form 
of French art, or rather that phase of it Avhich, requiring the greatest 
accuracy of detail and closeness of study, produces its results at long- 
intervals, in smaU forms, and with extreme concentration of thought 
and action. The canvases are of the most modest cabinet dimensions, 
and protest with singular emphasis against the vastness which vulgarizes 
the many battle-pieces of the larger national picture galleries. Ii^othing 
could be more dramatic or free from the clap-trap of commonplace than 
Meissonier's picture of "Napoleon I in Eussia." The tone of the work, 
expressing a disaster without depicting it,- its fulness of detail and clear 
faithfulness of particulars, cannot be sufiiciently i)raised. A work of 
almost equal importance represents ''Napoleon III at Solferino." Both 
indicate a larger scope in comx^osition than we are apt to expect in this 
fine colorist and genial but microscopic artist, who usually is content with 



WORKS OF ART. 21 

one or two figures. Gerome has been accused of liardness in the matter 
of drawing, and a selection of subjects which are ordinarily painful, or, 
at all events, repulsive. Conscious of this reproach he exhibited a paint- 
ing called '^ Louis XIY and Moliere," in which the monarch and the x)oet 
are exhibited, greatly to the advantage of the latter in i)oint of conde- 
scension. The courtiers express their amazement and contempt at the 
easy ways of the A^T:'iter, but the King is obviously overwhelmed. Such 
a subject naturally affords an opportunity for the contrast of many 
physiognomies, and for the display of much variety in the matter of 
color and costume. The success of Gerome in this new field has not 
been pronounced as positive. Most impartial spectators regarded the 
stern, nay, dismal tragedy of the '^Duel after the Masquerade" with 
more interest than the insipid smiles and supercilious sneers of the big- 
wigged actors who make ux) the tableau of ''Louis XIY and Moliere.'' 
Thus it would seem, so far as the Exposition of 18G7 permits us to judge, 
that Meissonier can step more easily and successfully out of his ordinary 
sphere of action than Gerome. Both, be it added, are great and strong, 
and the deviations noticed are a matter of curiosity rather than of criti- 
cism. 

Yery different from these pillars in art is Corot, a painter whose every 
work is extolled to the skies or condemned to pitiless ridicule by his 
countrymen. So far, no other i^eople has put itself to the trouble of 
going to either of these extremes. Li Xew York, Corot-s pictures were 
exhibited without producing even a pecun iary result. They were returned 
with promptness to the country of their birth, and many visitors from 
the other side of the Atlantic were siu'prised to find them turn up again 
in the Exposition. The artist has touched the whole range of art, and 
his knowledge is as undisputed as his eccentricity. He has a style of 
his own, inasmuch as no one has ever thought of imitating it; neverthe- 
less it has many admirers. It is characterized by a singular vaporiness 
of color, and a consequent faintness of outline which suggests haste, but 
is the result of an elaborate efibrt to be dreamy. To live in a constant 
atmosphere of fog, surrounded by objects of ghostly aspect, is not agree- 
able to most spectators 5 but such as are predisposed this way will find 
congenial feeling in the canvases of the eccentric Corot. 

Classical art was represented by Cabanel, who had six pictures — three 
of the number being on epic subjects, and the other three portraits. 
The largest of the former was from "Milton's Paradise Lost," and rep- 
resented the Deity surrounded by his heavenly ministers — an effort which 
is seldom successful, and was not rendered so on this occasion. This 
and its companions, however, displayed great academic skill and the 
infiuence of a school which makes the study of the form the first neces- 
sity of its existence, and which has recently lost its greatest exponents 
in the lamented IngTes and Flandrin. 

In a semi-classical vein, but with a quaint infusion of sentiment and 
allegory, were many works, mostly by artists who owe their education to 



22 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

the liberality of tlie government. The productions of Hamon, Bonge- 
reau, and others, are of this agreeable class. These gentlemen have 
each, at various times, taken the jrHj? de Rome. This is more than a 
recompense: it is like a presentation to a college, and means a classical 
education. Those who are fortunate enough at the academy competition 
to gain it are, for live years, nursed and cherished as men of superior 
ability and trained in a settled and severe way. They are sent to Eome, 
and during each year of their sojourn in the Imperial City they are 
expected to send specimens of their progress to the poAvers of the 
academy in Paris. These specimens are preserved with national care, 
being placed in a building where they are at all proper times exposed to 
the view of the public. The Palais des Beaux Arts and of the Luxem- 
bourg are, to a great extent, representations of the art progress of the 
country, and t\\Q pupils who each year contribute to their treasin*es 
remember that they have vast reputations to contend with. They are 
encoin-aged, too, with the reflection that these reputations were no greater 
than their own when their fortunate possessors sent their first contribu- 
tions to the academy. It may be interesting to state that the earliest of 
these canvases was sent by Sarrabat, and bears the date of 1G88. The 
school, which also comprises an academy of architectiu'e, was estab- 
lished in 1C48« — the architectural section being founded in 1671, and the 
pupils being sent to Greece instead of Italy. It includes also three 
studios for sculpture, one for copperplate engraving, and one for engrav- 
ing on medals and fine stones. A competition for the Grand prix de 
Borne takes place every year for i^ainters, sculptors, and architects; 
every two years for engTavers; every three years for engravers on 
medals and fine stones. After remaining two years at Eome the young 
students are jjermitted to travel. Engravers on medals and fine stones 
have only three years' x^rovision made for them, and must remain two 
years in Eome. The governor of the establishment sends official reports 
every six months of the i)rogress and pursuits of the i)upils. 

So far as painting is concerned strict attention to design is of the 
highest importance. But as the manner of the age drifts slowly from 
the stern manner of the ancieiits we find, as in the case of the artists 
just named, a tendency to fanciful subjects, with just suflicient of the 
classic element to remind the spectator of good training and of the intel- 
lectual restraint of other and older schools where inanimate art Avas con- 
ventionalized by uniformity and straightness in such things as foliage, 
and animate art was confined almost exclusively to the exhibition of the 
nude figure. 

Hamon^s i)ictures are familiar everywhere. They have been reproduced 
by the i^rocess of the engraver equally with that of the photographer. 
Every one has seen in some way a reproduction of his "Aurora," where 
the goddess of morning sips from the lips of the cup the first liba- 
tion of day. Tlie pose of the figure is charming, and Avhilst shoAving 
tlie coquettish knoAvledge of the female form Avhich Erench artists pos- 



WORKS OF ART. 23 

sess and display with a gracefulness all their own, it seems also to 
answer the piu^poses of the life study which those who win the j)rix de 
Rome are exjiected to pursue. Bougereau is perhaps less known in 
America. He is more severe than Hamon, and his sense of color is more 
positive. The object of referring to these artists is not so much to 
explain what they have done, and still less to tell the American i)eox>le 
how they have done it, which indeed would be a difficult task. But, to 
add a fiuiher statement, they occupy a very i)rominent i)osition before 
the most intelligent community in the world. Whatever comes from 
their easel is in demand — great demand — a demand which can scarcely 
be supplied. It is pleasant to know, therefore, that a portion of the 
time so much occux)ied is devoted to other purposes. It is to the co-opera- 
tion of such thoroughly informed artists that the government manufac. 
tories of France owe their unquestionable pre-eminence. 

The government of France indeed exercises a direct and practical 
inlluence on art which cannot be overestimated. It is paternal in the 
means it affords to its youth to avail itself of the opportunity to study, 
and it is hberal in purchasing what has been done. Out of the Q25 
numbers mentioned in the catalogue as appertaining to France, no fewer 
than 252 are contributed by the government. Many of the others, as 
we have before hinte<l, were loaned for the special occasion of the Exposi- 
tion, being traced by their painters to theu^ distant homes in the Old and 
ii^ew Worlds. 

The dramatic phase of historic art — that in which an action is expressed 
to the eye — was very largely represented. From the soldier who wraps 
his wounded leg in his x)ocket-handkerchief, to the t;^T:ant who lays his 
head prayerfidly on the block, it is in this department the same thing, 
namely, a matter of what can be remembered or felt, and mainly in 
French art, of what can be remembered. The innumerable, colossal, and 
tedious battle pieces Avhich i^revail in every museum of France are an 
evidence of this. YersaiUes tells the history of France with the coarse, 
smoky gusto of a dragoon. Throughout the i)itiless range of chambers 
there is not a scene which recalls a pleasing incident of battle, of tri- 
umph, or of defeat. The battle pieces at the Exposition were almost 
entirely of this character. They displayed an idea of action, a thorough 
sense of what is called situation, and an utterly faithful amount of details, 
topogTaphical, military, and otherwise. To the eye not inanately tutored 
to the beauties of red, there seemed too much in these productions, but 
tlie uniform which offends the foreign eye from its brilliancy is naturally 
the recognition point of Frenchmen, and appealing mth earnestness to 
the recollection, recalls the hveliest interest. The government, of course, 
was the principal exhibitor in this department. The x)ictures were the 
product of commissions given to various artists and intended for, or bor- 
rowed from, various museums of the country. History and poetry alike 
delight to record the triumphs of valor, but it is only of late years that 
painting has attempted to do so. The attempts have nowhere been so 



24 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

successful as in France. It may be questioned if any one will desire to 
essay more than Yvon lias accomplislied, an artist of splendid abilities^ 
whose two pictures of tlie "Taking of the Malakoff," and the "Struggle 
in the Gorge of Malakoff/*' are perfect, but it may be asked if such gigan- 
tic productions are desirable even as records of patriotism. As works 
of art they excite the regret that such splendid ability should be thrown 
a¥/ay on a scene which could be rendered with gTeater effect, ancl pre- 
cisely the same color, at a minor theatre of the city. 

^Nearly five per cent, of all the pictures exhibited in the French depart- 
ment AA^ere battle pieces. The three wliich from tlieir real sentiment and 
vigor of drawing attracted the most attention were by Protais : " The 
Morning before the Attack," the "Evening after the Combat," and the 
"Return to Camp," a work of very singular vigor, although windy, and 
which AT as contributed by the celebrated Bellanger . It depicts the episode 
of Waterloo, described in exerj French history, but Avhich Victor Hugo 
has put himself to the trouble of refuting, namely, that the Old Guard 
was prepared to die, but not to surrender. 

In animal paintings the French department Avas represented by Eosa 
Bonheur, Fromentin, and Troyou, deceased. Animal paintings, or, to 
speak more closely, the desire for animal paintings, is the fancy of a day. 
Judging from the productions of the artists named, it would seem that 
the fancy is somewhat out of fashion. Eosa Bonheur's poAvers Avere finely 
represented, but recent productions of the lady do not maintain her A'ery 
high reputation. 

Of that large class of subjects Avliich are called "genre," and which 
relate to little episodes of life or j)eculiarities of costume, there was an 
endless variety. Among the most prominent of French artists in this 
resi)ect, may be mentioned Plassau, Fichel, Poidmouche, and Wetter, 
w^ho each exhibited a number of interesting figure subjects charmingly 
suggestiA^e and exquisitely painted. Of the painters of rustic life, Breton 
and Millet preserA^ed their Ayell-known pre-eminence. 

In the Avay of landscape artists, the most agreeable and Avell knoAni 
were Theodore Eousseau, Lambinet, Daubigny, Cabat, and Dupre j the 
most singular was Corot. 

The French collection, as before remarked, consists of no fewer than 
G25 inctures, of which many Avere the personal property of the Emperor 
or the nation. It was said by French critics that the display did not 
indicate any progTess, and contained A^ery little that was new. Witli 
few exceptions all the important pictures had been exhibited elseAvhere. 
This remark, lioweA^er, applies with equal force to every other imtion. 
The fine arts department of the great undertaking Avas intended as an 
exposition, not as a competition. OtherAvise it would have been unfair 
to haA'e giA^en such marked preference to reputations. As an exposition 
it was exceptional excellence, and represented Aery forcibly the promi- 
nent position occupied by seA'eral artists of France. 

There Avere four nations Avho, not finding themselves sufficiently pro- 



WORKS OF ART. 25 

Tided witli space in tlie interior, obtained permission to bnild, and there- 
upon erected galleries of their own in tlie Park. These were Belgium, 
Switzerland, Holland, and Bavaria. Of these outside collections the 
most important was that made by the government of Belgium, it con- 
sisting of 186 i)ictures, and, as in the case of France, it was more a dis- 
play of individual and Avell-established reputations than a comi)etition 
of numbers. Of the 186 frames no fewer than 52 were contributed by 
five artists only. These were Leys, Stevens, Willems, Yerlat, and Clays, 
(marine.) The names suggest almost everything that is vital in the Bel- 
gian school. Of the five, the least known in America is Alfred StcA'ens. 
This artist has no fevrer than 18 i^ictures, all of them of cabinet size, and 
having for subjects familiar episodes of life, many of them touching and 
simple, and aU of them interesting to the eye. Thus the picture called 
^'Tous les Bonheurs," representing the serene content and bliss of 
a young mother nursing her infant, may be cited as a happy illus- 
tration of the artist's powers. Stevens paints with great boldness, and 
his coloring from its brilliancy is occasionally olfensive to the eye, but 
his power is unquestionable. In his selection of subjects, however, he 
sometimes borders on the " demi-monde." This is a fault which cannot 
be charged against his colleague Willems, whose extreme delicacy of 
fancy is apt to invade the realms of the insipid, l^o one ever under- 
stood the s^irl of a lady's satin dress better than WiUems, whose knowl- 
edge of this textui^e is singularly exact. Indeed, the details of all his 
work are remarkable for their truth and delicacy. They are never in the 
way, and interest the mind only as a part of the recollection of a very 
charming impression. The subjects selected by WiUems are of the sim- 
plest character, and neither suggest invention nor any other form of intel- 
lectual activity. But as they invariably ;^epresent a lady of refined 
appearance and elegant costimie, T^^.th hair and eyes of exquisite hues, 
they never fail to be interesting. As specimens of faithful and consci- 
entious work they are unequalled. The most important work exhibited 
by this renowned artist, and one which marks an ambitious step in the 
way of composition, was ''L'accouchee," a quiet interior which two vis- 
itors are entering on tip-toe. A young wife sleeps peacefully on a bed, 
and not far from her is the nui^se holding in her arms the first offspring 
of a happy house. The tone of the picture and the treatment are in 
every way admirable. The subject too is clearly expressed; a soft and 
tranquil stillness, not of death, but of exhaustion, hangs about the apart- 
ment like a spell. It would be a sin to distiu^b that fair young mother. 
''Two lovers exclianging a ring," another large picture — ^if the term can 
be used of this artist, whose canvases are always of the smallest — dis- 
plays the indications of a new style, bolder in color and in treatment 
than that with which heretofore we have been familiar. There is no 
artist, possibly ^ith the exception of Coomans, who understands so 
thoroughly how to harmonize the most delicate tints. 

A thorough contrast in this respect is found in the 12 works exhibited 



26 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

by tlie Baron Leys, tlie pre-Kapliaelite prophet of tlie Xetlieiiancls. The 
characteristics of this singular medifeval style are too pronounced to 
escape notice. The prevailing color is dead red or brick color. Bricks 
indeed of every color are favorite objects with the baron, as also are the 
cobble-stones which line his thoroughfares with i^ainfid distinctness. 
All the figiu-es stand with their legs astride, a position more comfortable 
than gracefid. All the legs are in red stockings, which, added to the 
cobble-stones and the bricks, contribute to a massive monotony of tone 
which, no doubt, is highly characteristic of the period and might serve 
as a warning to the present generation. In the faces there is invariably 
a painful expression, as if the toothache were a mediaeval invention that 
had recently been discovered. It is impossible to resist the laughable 
side of this school. But it has another and a serious significance. These 
lurching and lugubrious figures that seem to be falling out of the frames 
are at least correctly garbed. Every detail of dress or habitation or 
decoration is the result of learned investigation and study. The details 
of Leys's pictures are revelations of archaeological lore. To a certain class 
of minds, too, this seeming antiquity is irresistible. Leys's'pictures were 
of aU shapes and sizes. The subjects were taken for the most part from 
the stirring period of the gTcat struggle with Sx3ain for religious and 
civil liberty in the sixteenth centiu^y. 

Yerlat's tendencies are more classic. He exhibited a very beautiful 
^^ Yirgin and Child," a work quite exceptional in its excellences. Also 
a " Dead Christ at the foot of the Cross.'^ 

It would be superfluous to si)eak further of the pictures in this excel- 
lent collection. The tendency of the Belgian school is ambitiously 
French, except in the case of Leys, who is individual and x)re-Eaphaelistic. 

The government of Holland exhibits 170 pictures, among which are 
many works of unquestionable excellence. Israels is the head of this 
school, and is distinguished by delicacy of sentiment and simplicity of 
statement. He had five frames, aU of which were worthy of attention. 
But it is evident that this artist and nearly aU the others in the gallery 
attach more imx)ortance to the teachings of the French school than to 
the traditions of the Dutch. Bles, Alma, Tadema, Bukkerhorff, Schendel, 
Scheltema, and Yerveer, contributed acceptably to the display. 

The S^iss collection was composed of 112 i>ictiu'es, most of them of 
local interest. Where indeed could a Swiss artist find grander scenes 
for study than those of his own country ? 

Bavaria, as we have before mentioned, had, like the three preceding 
countries, her own building in the Park for the display of her art treas- 
ures. Her principal artists Avere Piloty, Horschelt, Adam, Schuets, 
SchAvind, and Lizzenmayer, in figure subjects; Woltz, in cattle pieces; 
Lier, in landscapes; and Lenbach, in portraits. The number of oil paint- 
ings contributed by Bavaria was 211. A large proportion were, avow- 
edly, sent for sale, and hence the display was neither so national nor so 
good as in other countries. 



WORKS OF ART. 27 

Prussia, for reasons of various kinds, did not do justice to lierself. 
]\Iany of her best artists were unrepresented. The number of works in 
all was but 98, and a large proportion was the property of the artists. 
Nevertheless there were several works of interest, such as Knaus^s "Sal- 
timbauque," well known by the engraving, and others equally familiar 
to the frequenters of our print-shops. Knaus's style is genial and ear- 
nest, and he possesses the power of concentration in an eminent degree. 

Austria contributed 80 pictures, the most important of Avhich was the 
"Diet of Warsaw, 1773," by Matejik, a very bold and well-distributed 
composition, laid on in heavy but effective masses of color. 

Spain was represented by 42, Portugal by 23, Greece by 4, Denmark 
by 29, Sweden by 54, and Norway by 45 oil paintings. 

Among the 63 contributions of Eussia were several that attracted 
attention. The subjects were mostly original, but the treatment had no 
distinctive national characteristic. It was, however, good, and worthy 
of comparison with the best in the gallery. Such comparison would be 
out of place here. The principal contributions were Gue, sacred sub- 
ject; Simmler, history; Peroff, Eizzoni, and Popoff', genre; Kotzebue, 
battles; and Clodt, landscapes. 

Italy, the mother of arts, contributed 51 oil paintings, none of Avhich 
were distinctive, and but few of which were above mediocrity. The 
Papal states sent 25, Turkey 7 paintings. 

Xext in the order of the catalogue — which we have followed, except 
when speaking of the establishments in the Park — came the limited space 
allotted to the United States of America. In another portion of this 
report, devoted to the special consideration of objects exhibited in the 
American department, will be found a description of the 75 works 
there put on view. The collection was in every way a creditable one. 
The foundry scene of Weir was the best work of the kind in the Expo- 
sition ; indeed, it was entitled to even greater consideration, for it was the 
only work of its kind. The landscapes of Church, Kensett, and Bier- 
stadt were also eminently national, and the productions of Boughton, 
Huntingdon, Hart, Johnson, Healy, Hunt, Whistler, &c., drew the atten- 
tion of connoiseurs who knew nothing of their origin. Eor, be it remem- 
bered, most of these paintings occupied the extreme end of the English 
gallery, and it was natural to sux)pose that they formed a portion of it. 
This in itself was no advantage. Nothing can convince a continental 
critic that art is either known or practiced in the British isles; and, 
owing to this cause, the stranger paid but passing heed to what was 
there displayed. 

In the schools we have so far hastily glanced at there has been a cer- 
tain uniformity of effort, which we have explained by describing the mode 
of study practiced by Erance. French influence in art at this moment 
extends to every continental country. The distinctiveness of the Dus- 
seldorff school is rapidly disappearing. That, too, it is evident, will 
become French. It is useless to look elsewhere. But if we cross the 



28 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

cliannel we sliall find a totally different state of affairs. Instead of 
5,000 men who paint precisely alike, and differ from each other only in 
the order of their intellectual, emotional, or mechanical force, we shall 
not find five who have agreed on any settled plan or style. The lack of 
regular methodical instruction^ combined with a total, or almost total, 
deficiency of government support, throws the art student entirely on his 
own resources. He is compelled to seek the manner which is readiest to 
him, and select the subjects which are more congenial to private taste. 
The government will neither show him the way which is best, nor reward 
his efforts for pursuing it successfully. A certain number of picture gal- 
leries, to be sure, are provided, and the student may do as he likes about 
following the style of any master there exposed. ]^o direct influence 
controls his studies, and he consequently wanders. There is something 
to be regretted in this, but a great deal, also, to be commended. Self- 
help is tedious and slow in its results, but it has often proved that it is 
the best kind of help, and certaiidy in art, as in everything else, it has 
shown on many occasions that it is better than blind subjection to estab- 
lished rule. There is character in the English exhibition, as there is in 
the American — so much character, so much contrast, so much individual 
effort, that the dilletant who is familiar only with the smooth competi- 
tion of the schools is bewildered, and condemns where, perhaps, it might 
be better to investigate. Certain it is that the French critics have been 
unusually severe on the English exhibition, and also on the pictures 
exhibited in the American section. The remarks we have made may 
seem an easy way of accounting for this severity. They have, at all 
events, their value with unprejudiced persons. 

CLASS 2.— OTHER PAINTI:N^GS AND DRAWI:N^GS. ~ 

Under this general head were comprised miniatures, aquarelles, pastels 
and drawings of all kinds -, paintings on enamel, on porcelain, on crock- 
ery; cartoons for frescoes and for glass windows; mosaics. 

Water-color drawing (aquarelle) or painting is, comparatively speak- 
ing, a new art. It has been brought to its greatest perfection in Eng- 
land, where Turner is still regarded as its best exponent. On the con- 
tinent it has attracted some attention, but it is regarded mth distrust. 
Water-color drawing differs from oil-color i)ainting in many mechanical 
matters of detail. The separate names of these two arts suggest the 
most imi)ortant of these differences ; the one is wrought in oil and the 
other in water. But beyond this there is a general distinction, which is 
often overlooked: In a water-color drawing all the colors are transparent ; 
the ''lights" are obtained from the original surface on which the draw- 
ing is made. In oil color, all the lights are superimposed on the canvas, 
and the original surface is of no value at all. Some of the finest artists 
that England has possessed have devoted attention to this very pleasing 
branch of art; among others, may be mentioned Turner, Cox, Dewint, 
Hunt, Copley, Fielding, and Stanfield. 



WORKS OF ART. 29 

The only important collection Avas in tlie Engiisli gallery, wliere tlie 
pictures, glazed and framed, occupied swinging panels in tlie centre of 
the apartment. Other nations, in their respective departments, con- 
tributed a few specimens 5 but the whole, put together, were greatly 
inferior in number and quality to the English. It was intended in this, 
as in the case of the oil painting, to illustrate the past ten years, not to 
assert positively what had been done from the very recent date of its 
birth. The drawings were, of course, entirely supplied from private 
sources, the government having no museums from whence to draw a 
supply. Of late years these private sources have been called upon very 
often to give u^) their treasures. Local art exhibitions have been rife in 
England, Ireland, and other i}arts of the British isles. Pictures have 
been borrowed, and, after due exhibition, returned to their owners in an 
injured condition. It has been af&rmed that, owing to these causes, the 
owners of valuable works declined to run the risk of sending them across 
the channel, and that, in consequence, the collection, good as it was, 
could scarcely be said to represent satisfactorily the present condition of 
the art in England. I^Tevertheless, there were many works of sterling 
value, and nearly all were worthy of examination. It would be useless 
to describe the excellencies of particular frames, but it may be service- 
able to refer to the comments of an admirable artist, Avho seems to think 
that the art has taken a do^ynward tendency. He bases this opinion on 
the ground that in nearlj^ every x)icture exhibited opaque colors w^ere 
used. By this exi)ression he meant little masses of mineral substance 
placed in prominent places, and heightening, by a sort of embossed bril- 
liancy, the effects of the lower tones. It is affirmed by the best critics 
that water-color drawing should be entirely transparent, and that this 
tendency to overlay the natural source of the light is meretricious. 
Moreover, it is known to be detrimental to the permanent value of the 
drawing. The imposed substance drops off', from climatic causes, and 
is especially effected by the glass covering which gives protection to the 
other parts of the picture. This point is of imi^ortance to purchasers of 
water-color draT\angs, and of interest to artists who may not themselves 
be familiar ^ith a fact which, while increasing their i)resent poi^ularity, 
endangers their permanent fame. Mr. Horsley speaks feelingly on the 
subject. He says: 

'^ A water-color draughtsman who cherishes' the beautiful ground he 
works upon for his lights, or, if he has lost this, scrapes or washes 
them out, has a far harder and more anxious time of it than he who, 
by the aid of opaque mixtures, dabs them on in a moment and renews 
them at pleasure. It may, however, readily be conceded that another 
and worthier reason for the use of oj^aque color is the ^'earning of 
the artist to have substance and solidity in his material; but when he 
feels this, and that he is flagging in devotion to those qualities of art 
which water-color, and water-color alone, can produce, he should become 
an oil painter, and cease to be a water-color draughtsman.'^ 



30 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

There ^vere scanty displays of crater-color drawings from France, from 
Anstria, from tlie Pontifical States, from Greece, from Sweden, and from 
Enssia. The latter were by far the best. China, too, exhibited a dis- 
temper painting" of almond-eyed beauties, with skins that seemed to have 
been wound up tight by means of the hair-dresser, and their under lips 
painted gi'een. 

Of pastels and dj^-a^Ndngs of all kinds there was no end. Every design, 
indeed, coidd l?e brought under one of these two heads, and almost every 
country contributed to the store. The word "pastel" in these days means 
anything from chalk up to body color. The French department offered 
fine specimens of the various processes. Bavaria presented a remark- 
able display of drawings and models, showing the various stages of 
study from the cast and from life. 

The subjects of "painting on enamel, earthenware, and on china," do 
not greatly interest the American community, except in their practical 
bearing on housekeeping; but in Europe they engage the attention of 
the better classes, and give occupation to the highest kind of skilled labor. 
Thus, while it hai^peus that beauty and permanency are often attained, 
it is often the case that the local fame of an artist and his tedious 
patience take the prize which the former should have commanded. Mr. 
Horsley, writing on this subject, says: 

"It seems necessary to bear in mind not only the principles of art 
that should be applied to these various branches of industry, but also to 
suggest that peculiar abstraction of mind is in some instances requisite 
in order to appreciate the results, as far as the arts of i)ictorial designs 
and execution are concerned. Take, for instance, what it is x)resumed 
would be considered the highest class of enamelled works in the Exhibi- 
tion — those of Lepec and Eudolphi, who exhibit enamels on gold and 
other metals. The pictorial art exhibited in those works is both puerile 
and bad, as, for example, the ^Angelique and Eoger,' by Lepec, which is 
placed among the French miniatures. ]S"othmg can be less worthy of 
regard, in an artistic i)oint of view, and his portrait is little better. 
Lepec has also a case of enamelled vases, executed with the rarest 
skill and ability, with fabulous prices attached to and given for them ; 
yet the painting which is intended to ornament these ohjets de luxe 
is quite beneath notice. Again, look at the series of elaborate eimmels 
in porcelain in the Bavarian annexe, by Wimmer, of Munich, and 
other German artists, after well-known pictures. What are these but 
wicked copies of immortal works '? — so bad as to be irritating to the 
artist wiio looks at them; copies, which, if made on cauA'as or pai^er, 
would not fetch as many pence as the ])ounds which are now given for 
them. Then, what quality is it that makes these productions so readily 
marketable? It can be only that of permanency — a quality appealing 
to minds so constituted as to derive satisfaction in the possession of 
'Angelique and Eoger,' of Lepec, or one of AVii)imer's travesties of 
Eaphael and Eubens, simply because they are works which will never 



WORKS OF ART. 31 

tone with age or fade with time. Great as may be the charms to some 
minds of the sense of permanency, it must be permitted to those of more 
artistic sensitiveness to assert that this quality does not compensate for 
other wants." 

The same able critic also makes the following remarks, which are in 
every way worthy of attention : 

''To come to what may be termed painting proper upon i^orcelain, i. e., 
the decoration of vessels of various forms lor ornament and use, it may 
be submitted that the general principle to be observed in applying art 
to such work is that it should harmonize in every way with the forms 
receiving it. As these forms are of a well-defined and architechtonic 
form, so the pictural adjunct should, as far as possible, partake of the 
same qualities. Thus, speaking broadly, all landscape subjects and those 
requiring picturesque treatment are undesirable and incongruous for the 
object in view. Occasionally in the present exhibition you will come 
upon a vase on which a landscape is painted, which commencing on the 
body of the vessel, is made to meander (trees, sky, buildings, and all) 
over the concave and convex forms to be found at its neck. Can there 
be a more absurd departure from true taste in ornamentation than such 
an exami)le as this?'' 

There were many cartoons for stained glass and fresco, but they were 
of interest chiefly to artists who work in this extensive way. It is hardly 
desirable to refer to productions which may never come before the public 
again. In America everything that is painted on a ceiling or a wall is 
called a fresco. Such work is ordinarily executed in distemper, in wax, 
water-glass, or oil. True fresco has a peculiar quality of its o^ti which 
eminently distinguishes it from all other methods of painting. It is this : 
that a fresco is a non-absorbent of light. The fresco ground is composed 
of certain proportions of lime (from which the heating element has to a 
great extent been washed out) and sand, and this mixture is used by the 
painter in its moist state. The wet lime, absorbing carbonic acid from 
the atmosphere, becomes carbonate of Lime, and in combination with the 
sand produces an impermeable cement which is formed over the surface 
of the ground during the day's labor, and in which the color used is incor- 
porated and fixed. This cemented surface has been stated to be suf- 
ficiently crystalline to reflect light ; but whether this be so or not, its non- 
absorbency of light is unquestionable. Thus, where an oil painting would 
be invisible a fresco is clearly seen. 

The Russian mosaic work was by far the finest in the exhibition and 
deservedly attracted much attention. It came from the atelier of Michel 
Chmielevski, of St. Petersbiu-gh, and was designed by Professor I^off. 
The subject was a group of ecclesiastics in their vestments, and the object 
the decoration of a Greek chiu-ch. The Roman mosaics were far inferior. 



32 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

CLASS 3.— SCULPTURE, DIE-SIXKING, STONE AXD CAMEO 

ENGEAYING. 

It would be impossible in the space devoted to tliis report to do jus- 
tice, even cursorily, to the many specimens of sculpture exhibited in the 
various sections of the Exposition, and it may be added, too, that it would 
be entirely uninteresting to do so. To the majority of people, statuary, 
at best, is a sealed book. It creates no sensation when it is visibly before 
them, and it would certainly create less, if it were possible, when simply 
described by the feeble power of a reporter. Nevertheless, it is the 
grandest, most ancient, and most durable of the arts. The works which 
delight the critic of to-day and are believed to mark the golden age of 
statuary, date their origin many centuries before the Christian era. The 
full beauty of the human form has never been so acciu'ately described as 
by the Greek sculi^tors. The mythology of the country gave to their 
efforts an elevation and purity of thought which in these days cannot be 
conveyed to similar subjects however skilfully manipulated. Hence the 
tendency of sculpture has been to moderate the severity- of the ancient 
school and to create another in which clothes shordd not be whoUy dis- 
regarded. The toga imposed itself on the thoughts and consciences of 
artists. Were it a booted warrior with a cocked hat that had to be 
depicted he was found clad in the garb of a Roman senator. An absurdity 
so conspicuous could not long continue. A new school sprang up. Its 
aim was to caU a spade a spade. If top boots and a cocked hat were 
wanted the disciples of that school were ready to supi^ly them. Nay, if 
Achilles, himself, in addition to his one natural defect, had also had a 
pimple on the top of his nose, they would have alighted upon it with 
enthusiasm. Excess of any kind naturally leads to reaction, and a reaction 
took place. But the various theories still remain. The purists and the 
realists contend for their separate ideas, and the able men on either side 
i)rove how easy it is for both to be right. 

There never was a better battle-field than the Champ de Mars, where 
statuary of colossal proportions contended with the humbler but equally 
interesting productions of our own Roger, whose small domestic groujis 
for the mantelpiece are well known to loyal i)eople. Nothing could 
be more realistic than these touching incidents of the late Avar. While 
thus bending, as all young nations will, to the ideas w^hich are neAvest, 
it happened curiously enough that the gem of the classical school Avas 
also of American origin. The composition referred to Avas by Miss Hos- 
mer, and was called the '' Sleeping Faun." The attitude of the principal 
figure is graceful and natural, the expression of the face thoroughly Avin- 
ning. A miscliieA ous child faun is most happily introduced in the group. 
He is partly hidden behind the trunk of the tree beneath which tlie elder 
faun is reposing, and amuses himself by knotting the tail of the latter 
into the tail of a lion's skin upon AAdiich the elder faun reposes. 

The French statuary, by its numbers and the variety of its styles and 
subjects, was considered the best. The Italians also exhibited much that 



WORKS OF ART 33 

was very marked in character, and snfficient to sIioay that in this respect 
Eonian ^rt yet maintains her own. One of the most striking statues in 
the Italian yestibule was ^'The Last Days of I^apoleon I." This was 
another realistic work, and, so far as execution went, its details were 
worked out Avith a skill and power of execution that was not to be found 
elsewhere. But its subject was painful. It may be questioned whether 
any amount of skill justifies an artist in exhibiting a hero in so decrepid, 
diminute, and hopeless a condition. Sculpture has nothing whatever to 
do with decrepitude. Its office is to ennoble and idealize the grandest 
tyi>es of humanity. ^N'apoleon seated in his arm-chair, with his head 
drooping forward, his eyes heavy and sad, and the hour of dissolution 
^dsibly upon him, is a spectacle which robs history of a hero. The French, 
however, were satisfied with the work, and a gold prize was awarded to 
the artist. It may be added here that there was a very curious and 
interesting collection of busts of Napoleon I. They were six in number ; 
but only three or four of the six were derived from authentic sources. 
The authority for the last, ^'Napoleon at St. Helena," may be disputed, 
and the first, representing him as a child, has no other authority than an 
apocryphal sketch in pencil which may be seen yet at the Louvre. Taking 
them, however, as real presentments of the boy and the man, they are 
in the highest degTce interesting and valuable. 

In the Belgian department were exhibited some small terra cotta models 
belonging to the familiar picture sculi3ture school and representing scenes 
from domestic life and from Shakespeare and Moliere. Their merit con- 
sisted in their broad humor and true exiiression, to which may be added 
great care and ability shown in the modelling. 

The sculptor Westmacott, in concluding his official report on the 
statuary of the Exi^osition, says : '' The impression left by a careful 
examination of the works in sculpture of different nations is on the 
whole of a favorable character. That there is much that challenges 
criticism must be admitted 5 but the general i^ractice of the art affords 
satisfactory evidence that while its emplojTuent is very greatly extended 
there is also manifest improvement in sculptors, in knowledge of form, 
and in a feeling for the beautiful, shomng the value of close observation, 
of nature regulated by the discipline derived from a careful study of the 
best ancient examples. There is also considerable technical power shown 
in execution, in carving, modelling, casting, and chasing, proving beyond 
question that in the material exercise of the art there is good gTOund for 
congratulation." • 

French artists have long been eminent for their attention to and skill; 
in medal engra^dng and die-sinking. It has always been the practice of 
France, from a very early date, to encourage these arts, and the sculptors 
have worthily responded to the patronage and protection thus accorded. 
Some of these works in the present Exposition were of large size, con- 
sisting of groups and comx)ositions admirably treated. Others display- 
ing beautiful workmanship, although merely portraits, were, in fact, gemfi 
of art. 

3 u E 



34 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

CLASS 4.— AEOHITECTUEAL DESIGNS AND MODELS. 

The display of arcliitectiiral designs and models was ample. The lat- 
ter especially exhibited remarkable skill of prodnction and elaborateness 
of detail. Both pertain to subjects that do not come within the range 
of this report, which is not technical but general. Among professional 
men it was thought that a better show might have been made, i^articii- 
larly in the case of works that are now actually i)rogressing. The most 
perfect exhibition was made by the Suez Canal Company, which, topo- 
grax)hically, architecturally, and otherwise, exhibited the difficulties which 
beset that great undertaking, the way they have been overcome, and 
what yet remains to be accomi)lished. These details occupied an entire 
building in the Park, and formed a special attraction of themselves. 

CLASS 5.— ENGRAYmG AND LITHOGEAPHY. 

The subjects in this group appeal in a thousand ways to every taste, 
and are especially valuable alike for amusement as for instruction. There 
is hardly a work of any imx3ortance in the scientific world that does not 
in some way appeal to or depend upon one or other of these sister arts. 
The larger and more important part of all engravings are transcripts 
from i)aintings, and this mode of reproduction has of late become so 
popular that the number of those who pursue the profession, which was 
declining, has greatly increased. Of the innumerable body of engravers 
on wood it is impossible to speak. A fair exposition of their products 
would have filled half the building. There has been no marked improve- 
ment either in engraving or lithography diuing the past decade, save 
what could be traced to increased skill on the part of those who exercise 
these professions. 



GROUP II. 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL 

ARTS. 

Class 6. Printing and Books.— Class 7. Paper, Stationery, Binding, Painting, 
AND Drawing Materials.— Class 8. Application of Drawing and Modelling to 
the Common Arts.— Class 9. Photographic Proofs and Apparatus.— Class 10. 
Musical Instruments.— Class ]]. Medical and Surgical Instruments and 
Apparatus.— Class 12. Mathematical Instruments and Apparatus for Teach- 
ing Science. — Class !3. Maps and Geographical and Cosmographical Apparatus. 

CLASS 6.— PRmTIKG AND BOOKS. 

The principal contributions in this class were from J^'rance, Austria, 
England, and the United States. The following extracts from the intro- 
duction by E. Dentu, to the catalogue of the exhibitors in the French 
section, i^resent a condensed view of the condition of the publishing trade 
in France, and some general observations upon the present state of the 
typographic art : ^ 

"The productions comprised in Class 6 may be divided into eight sec- 
tions : I. Specimens of typography. II. Autographic proofs. III. Lith- 
ography in black and colors. TV. Engravings. Y. JSTew books and new 
editions of various works. YI. Collection of works forming special libraries. 
YII. Periodical publications. YIII. Drawings, atlases and albums, 
technical or educational. This class includes 144 exhibitors from seven- 
teen departments of France. Paper and ink, and in a less degree vellum, 
and objects in i)aper and x)asteboard, are the raw materials of printing and 
the library. These articles make part of class 7. Good quality of the 
raw material, and perfection in the manufacture, are the essential requi- 
sites for paper, which, in the form of books, lithographs, or engra\angs, 
is destined to bear the test of time. The facilities afforded for the export 
of rags from France have not yet been counterbalanced by the employ- 
ment of substitutes so eagerly sought in the manufactiu'e of printing- 
paper. Periodical j)ublications, x>roduced in large numbers and of ephe- 
meral interest, alone, employ paper containing ligneous or other sub- 
stances mixed with waste textile materials. Parchment and vellum are 
only used for a few special matters -, such, for instance, as patents and 
diplomas. The imitations of vellum in paper, having the strength and 
surface of the skin, are more generally employed in choice editions. The 
quality of the ink has a great effect on ]3rinting and on tlie beauty of 
the work produced j its i^rice varies according to the degree of fineness, 

1 This and the subsequent extracts from the Official Catalogue have been taken from the 
English version, published under the authority of the Imperial Commission by J. M. Jolm- 
son & Sons, London. 



36 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

It slioiild diy rapidly, give clear lines, and reproduce the finest strokes. 
The manufacture of colored ijrinting-inks has been much improved, and 
they are now applied in many Avays in i^rinthig". The series of colors 
and tints is very varied j some are remarkable for tone and brilliancy; 
but, unfortunately, their price is relatively high, especially in the case of 
those Avhich include the aniline colors in their composition. Since the 
day when Guttenberg conceived the idea of producing the characters of 
the text accompanying engravings in moyable types, to the commence- 
ment of the present century, the improvements introduced in the art of 
printing were but few. Sixty years ago hand-presses were still in use 
with the vertical pressure which had replaced the originally lever arrange- 
ment ^ the ink was still ground by hand Avitli a muUer, and the ball still 
inlved the type or engraving in relief. The impression was still taken 
from the forms composed of movable characters. The progress of modern 
society soon rendered these primitive means insufficient. The problem 
to be solved was, how to arrive at the most rapid and most economic 
production. This was resolved by the invention of stereotyping, or 
method of converting into single plates the pages composed in separate 
tji^es. The galvano-plastic i^rocess afterwards enabled the stereotj^^ed 
plates to be formed with increased rapidity, and, moreover, assured their 
preservation. The transformation was comi^leted by the invention of 
cylinder machine. Chromo-lithography, or lithographic x)rinting in 
several colors, in consequence of improvements in the methods of regis- 
tering, and in the facilitiesof multiplying without great cost the number 
of stones necessary for the i)rinting in various colors, has assumed enor- 
mous importance. It has thus been made applicable to the demands ot 
trade, especially in the i^roduction of decorated tickets and show-cards. 
One of the happiest applications of chromo-Mthography is the reproduc- 
tion of the miniatures and stained glass of the middle ages, and the 
publication of few simile copies of ancient manuscrii)ts and illuminated 
missals. Independently of designs executed directly on the stone, lith- 
ography is applied to the printing of max)S, engraved drawings of machi- 
nery, to Avriting transferred to stone by means of autographic i)aper, to 
copperi^late and wood engravings, and to typographical i^rinting. Photo, 
lithography, which has for its object the obtaining of photographic 
pictures on stones, and the production of printed impressions, begins to 
yield some practical results. Copperplate printing, which consists in 
inking a copper, steel, or pewter plate by the ball or by the hand, is still 
executed by hand-presses j the mechanical i^rocesses attempted have yet 
yielded but small results. EngraAdng and ornamental printing has been 
greatly aided by the galvano-plastic process, which supplies stereotn^e 
l)lates as i)erfect as the i)lates or block cut by the engraver, and Avhich 
thus allow an unlimited number of imjiressions to be taken Avithout affect- 
ing the original. The plates furnislied by this process for chromo-t3^)o- 
grai)hy, or tyi)ographic color printing, possess an exactness which it has 
been found impossible to obtain by other means. They enable the printer 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 37 

to produce for a few lialfi^ence excellent imi)ressious worked from fifteen 
to twenty plates, in register, each with a different color or shade. The 
numerous and i^ersevering attemiDts made to reproduce in relief the 
original designs of the artist, and to convert drawing and writing on 
stone into t}i^)ograpliic stereotype plates, have yielded, if not perfect results, 
at any rate sufficient proofs that the problem is in reality solved. Paticon- 
ography, a chemical process which produces blocks in relief from the 
hollo^\ s of engraved plates, is now employed in the illustration of many 
important publications. It is used with success for printing maps, /«c 
similes, and music. 

The publisher is, at the present day, a real producer ; carrying on, not 
a house of business, but a sort of collective workshop, in which the 
designer, the engraver, the j)rinter, the paper-maker, &c., work together 
under his guidance with a fixed object. He has also another claim to 
the title of producer. He not only issues new or old works in choice or 
popular editions, but he creates collections of works with special objects, 
periodical or encyclopedical i)ublications, and supplies subjects for treat- 
ment. It is by such combinations that the greater part of the extensive 
publications now issued are brought to light. The extension of the home 
trade in books would be considerably increased if the law of colportage, 
(hawking and sale at stalls,) and the limitation of printers' licenses, did 
not diminish the means of action. Working printers are divided into 
two classes : those who work by the task and those who are paid by the 
day. Compositors employed at task work receive for a thousand letters 
[ens?] 55 centimes to 1 franc 40 c, according to the type employed, and 
the language in which the copy is v^Titten. Those who work by the day 
are i)aid according to a tariff arranged by the emi)loyers and workmen 
in common, and of which the lowest rate is 5 francs 50 centimes per day 
for ten working hours. The pressmen stand in the same condition, and 
their wages are as high as those of the compositors. The workmen who 
attend the machines only earn 4 francs a day, and. the children employed 
as assistants receive from 1 franc to 1 franc 50 a day. Wages in the 
provinces are about 30 i)er cent, lower than in Paris. The emploj^nent 
of women in printing establishments, after having encountered great 
opposition, has at length been carried out, and gives very satisfactory 
residits. The wages which they receive are very nearly the same as those 
of the men. The great printers have established relief funds ; but only 
one in Paris, equally prominent for the importance of his business, and 
his personal character, has admitted his workmen to a participation of 
l)rofits. The principal centres of the business are: Paris, Tours, Eouen, 
LiUe, Lyon, Limoges, Eennes, and Epinal. Strasburg stands in the second 
Unef and afterwards come Bordeaux, Marseilles, Grenoble, Caen, and 
Chatillon. The printers are divided into t;^T)ogTaphical printers, who 
number about 900 in France 5 and lithographic printers, amounting 
to 800, of whom 391 are in Paris. As to the copperplate printers, 
Paris possesses about 138. There are but very few in the provinces. 



38 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The number of works priuted in the year 1866, inchiding neTv books 
as well as reprints of all works, amounted to 13,883. Of this number 
the ''Belles Lettres" and novels form the greater portion. Political 
and religious works amounted to nearly^ 2,000 ; history, geogTaphy, 
voyages, and travels to nearly 1,500; scientific works, 1,900; works 
on commerce and agriculture to nearly 1,000. The production of engrav- 
ings, lithographs, photographs, plans, maps, charts and drawings of all 
kinds, amount to about 30,000 ; to Avhich must be added 9,000 i^ublica- 
tions of vocal and instrumental music. These productions represent on 
an average 20,000,000 of francs in the total exportation of France, and 
emi^loy 2,500 tons of paper. There are also printed in France 1,771 peri- 
odical pubhcations, of which 336 are political joiu-nals, and the remain- 
ing 1,135 Uterary, scientific, and miscellanous. Among the improve- 
ments introduced into the printing and bookselling trades since 1855, the 
following may be pointed out : 1. The variety and clearness of the tyi^es 
produced in the foundries, and the better choice of types employed in 
the printing of books, as regards the subject and the object of the imb- 
lication. 2. The i)rogress made in chromo-lithogTaphy and chromo-tj^po- 
graphy. 3. The improvement made in stereotyping,, both as regards 
rapidity and perfection; the development of stereotyping by the galvano- 
plastic process, and the emplojTnent of paniconographic stereotype plates. 
1. The improvement and cheapness of the impressions obtained by the 
excellent method of cutting employed in engTa^ing, and the general intro- 
duction of improved printing presses driven by steam; the satisfactory- 
result obtained by the application of these presses to lithography and 
chromo-lithography; the skill exhibited in the composition of tabular 
matter; and, above all, the increasing number of i)rinting establishments 
capable of executing ditficult work with great perfection." 

The exhibition from the United States was by no means as complete 
as it should have been. Only two or three of the prominent publishers 
were represented by their pubhcations. D. Appleton & Co. sent a bound 
copy of the Kew American Encyclopedia; Merriam & Co., of Spring- 
field, sent specimens of their printing, and Brewer & Tileston sent a 
copy of Worcester's Dictionarj-. The choice and beautifully printed 
works from the presses of Cambridge, ISTew York, and Philadelphia, were 
not to be found. The books and apparatus for the use of the blind 
attracted much notice. 

The very interesting display made by the American Bible Society- 
should be noted here as one of the most remarkable of the tj-pographi- 
cal and iKiblishing exhibits of the Exposition. This society-, organized 
in 1816, has issued 22,118,175 copies of tlie Holy Scriptiu-es, in about 50 
different languages, at home and abroad; such as English, German, 
French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Welsh, Irish, Gaelic, Dutch, Dan- 
ish, Swedish, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Polish, Russian, Esthoman, Hun- 
garian, Finnish, Syriac, Arabic, Armenian, Hebrew-Spanish, Armiiio- 
Tiirkish, Arabo-Turkish, Mpongwe, Zulu, Arrawack, Grebo, Benga, Choc- 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 39 

taw, Chickasaw, Ojibwa, Dakota, Moliawk, Delaware, Creolese, Hawa- 
iian, Microuesiau in several dialects, Chinese in several dialects, Siamese, 
Hindu, and Urdu. 

A very interesting and valuable series of publications upon science, 
art, medicine, and morals was sent by the Viceroy of Egypt, as speci- 
mens of typography from the government establishment, Boulac, Cairo. 
The government of Hawaii sent various specimens of native publica- 
tions in English and the Hawaiian language. The latter works were 
ciuiosities, simply showing the mechanical march of letters into regions 
where education had scarcely penetrated. They had no claims to typo- 
graphical merit. The perfection of a ludnted page is to look clear. It 
must never look crowded, whatever be the type in which it is printed. 
The proi)ortion of each letter must be mathematically correct. The capi- 
tals must bear a true relation to the small letters, and neither escape 
the attention nor attract the eye too much. The spaces — or intervals 
between the letters and words — must be well determined, not cai)ricious, 
for in the latter case the eifect would be spotty. In this art, modern 
printers may yet learn much from their j)redecessors. The regularity of 
black letters was favorable to uniformity, and the contrast of black and 
white was more positive from the heaviness of the characters used. In 
the earliest books, the capital letters were left to be illuminated by 
hand, but very soon wood engravings were used both for the capitals 
and as borders for the last. Later, the borders were abolished and large 
ornamental cajntals cast in type metal were used for the capitals of each 
chapter. These were succeeded by engravings on copper with head and 
tail pieces, many of Avhich were the Avorks of the first artists of their 
time. The process was a slow one, inasmuch as it involved two distinct 
modes of printing. It Avas in due time abandoned, and the fashion has 
now returned to borders cut in Avood, or types, and to illumination, a ncAv 
process iuA^oMng lithography as Avell as common printing, expensiA^e but 
very beautiful. 

There were admirable specimens of books in the Oriental languages. 
The Hebrew types are the clearest and most elegant that exist. They 
have long had this renoAvn, and the Arabic, although stiffer, are still more 
elegant than any other type cast in Europe. The charm probably lies 
in the respectiA^e alphabets. 

CLASS 7.— PAPEE, STATIONERY, BrnDTOG, PAESTTrnG AND 
DRAWING MATERIALS. 

The foUoAving statistical data are extracted from the report of Messrs. 
Haro and Roulhac, members of the committee of admission of class 7 in 
the French department. The facts relate chiefly to France, but are of 
general interest. 

The articles exhibited in class 7 com]3rehended stationery proper, book- 
binding, the various objects comprised under the title of office requisites, 
and artistic materials. 



40 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 



STATIOKERY, AND PAPERS. 

There are few departments AYliich do not possess several paper-mills. 
Angonmois, Ardeclie, Yosges, Isere, and tlie basin of tlie Loire are tlie most 
important as regards tlie nnmber of the mills. The rags employed in the 
mannfactiu-e are nearly all purchased in France. Since the treaty of com- 
merce, these materials, of which the export was previously prohibited, may 
be exported on the payment of a small duty, Avhich is gradually being 
reduced to extinction. The importation of cotton and linen rags and old 
cordage amounted, during the first nine months of 1866, to 2,830 tons. 
The imi)ortation of foreign rags, including cotton, linen, and old cordage, 
during the same period, amounting to 7,914 tons. The number of vats 
for hand-made paper in France is said to be 140; that of great machines 
for making white or colored paper, sized or unsized, 270 • and of machines 
for making wrapping papers, 230. These vats and machines occupy about 
34,000 persons, of whom 11,000 are women, and produce more than 
129,000 pounds of paper. The annual consumption of the rags may be 
estimated at 115,000 tons. The average -price of hand-made i3ax)er does 
not amount to more than two francs the kilogram; that of printing 
and writing i)apers is about one franc ten centimes the kilogram ; that 
of packing and wrapping papers, forty centimes the kilogram. The 
greater part of the paper manufactured in France is consumed in the 
country. Exportation, however, tends to develop itself ; it has consider- 
ably augmented since 1865. During the first nine months of 1866, it rose 
to 7,578 tons. As to the imi)ortation of foreign papers it is unimportant; 
the amount, during the same period, did not exceed 100 tons. The com- 
mittee of admission of class 7 points out, among the improvements 
carried out in the paper manufacture : 1. The use of motive power, which 
during the last few years has increased at least 10 per cent.; 2. The 
gradual and intelligent application of substitutes for rags in those places 
w^here the latter are wanted or are dear ; 3. A i^ositive amelioration in 
the general economy of the manufacture, which has surmounted all diffi- 
culties by reducing the price, in spite of the constantly increasing cost of 
the raw material and of everything which contributes to the production 
of paper. 

PASTEBOARD. 

Pasteboard is divided into three sorts : 1. Pasteboard in sheets, which 
is obtained by uniting sheets of paper one upon the other hj means of 
pulp paste ; 2. Pulp pasteboard, which is made in the frame with waste 
l)aper, old paper collected, paper cuttings, and often with the aid of a 
mixture of straAV and other materials ; 3. Machine-made cardboard, wliicli 
is nothing more than cardboard made by machines similar to those 
employed in making paper. This mode of manufacture only dates from 
1846. Among the pasteboard which is employed in a special manner 
must be cited bitumenized pasteboard, the pasteboard which serves for 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 41 

the Jacquarcl loom ; tlie pasteboard of wliicli railway tickets are made ; 
and especially the glazed pasteboard used iu the dressing of shawls, 
stuffs, and papers. This last manufacture is developing very consider- 
ably, and there is no country that can equal France in this kind of pro- 
duct. The manufacturers of ordinary cardboard are to be found in all 
the districts of France. They have little connection with foreign coun- 
tries j they exj)orted, however, during the first nine months of 1866, 211 
tons to various countries. Paris employs in this branch of trade more 
than 500 work people, and the annual amount of business exceeds 
£120,000. 

PLAYma CARDS. 

The manufacture of playing cards comprises the making of the card ; 
the imi>ression of the design ; the coloring of the engraved figures ; the 
glazing. The French cards, that is to say, those of which the designs and 
the ace of spades are furnished by the government, are divided into fine 
cards, demi-fine, and common. The fancy cards, of which the price is 
higher, are charged with a tax of 50 centimes. Foreign cards, intended 
for exportation, pay no duty. The home consumj^tion of this article is 
increasing, but the exportation is not extending. A large number of 
placing cards is exx)orted to Mexico, to Hayti, to Peru, and South America 
generally. 

FANCY PAPERS. 

This name is given to all i)apers gilt, silvered, colored, printed, 
embossed, pierced, &c., which are used in making objects in paper for 
bookbinding, confectionary, pharmacy, drugs, and laces. Among these 
papers, some, such as marbled papers, are made entirely by hand; 
others, printed, watered, and shagreened, are machine-made. All these 
articles are manufactured with white French paper, more or less fine. 
This trade exports little, in spite of the incontestable superiority which 
an immense assortment and excellent taste confer ui)on it. The manu- 
facture, in France, of these fancy papers amounts to nearly £280,000. 
Paris is the centre of this interesting specialty, which employs more than 
1,200 work-people. 

OBJECTS MADE OF PAPER AND PASTEBOARD. 

This class includes a multitude of articles small and large, rich and 
common, for offices, warehouses, travelling necessaries, packing, and the 
makers of fancy articles. This trade is essentially Parisian, and is con- 
tinually on the increa se. Th ere are nearly 400 makers in the two branches 
of the trade above indicated 5 they employ more than 2,500 work-people, 
and the total amount of business may be safely estimated at £400,000. 

OFFICE STATIONERY, ETC. 

This term includes account-books, pocket-books, ink-stands, sealing- 
wax, wafers, pen-holders, pencils, and miscellaneous articles. This trade 



42 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

is essentially Parisian. Its various branclies include 309 makers, wlio 
emjiloy 1,436 work-people, and do business to the amount of 9,220,860 
francs, (£368,834.) The article of account-books is the most imx)ortant; 
it is treated with great care and superiority in all parts of France, but 
particularly in Paris, where 130 manufacturers and stationers do business 
to the extent of not less than £252,880 in this one article. The invention 
of artificial lead for pencils has given rise to an industry which is essen- 
tially French. The sealing-wax manufacture is interesting from the pro- 
gress which it has made since the treaty of commerce. The custom which 
prevails of gumming envelopes interferes seriously with the fabrication 
of sealing-wax and wafers. 

ENVELOPES. 

There are few trades which exhibit a development equal to that of 
envelope making. This specialty dates from 1838, but only began to 
grow into importance in 1851. All the envelope makers are found in 
Paris, and they do not i)roduce less than 2,500,000 a day. linearly all the 
operations are performed by mechanical means : folding and gumming 
are done by machines ; even the boxes in wliich the envelopes are sold 
are produced mechanically. The annual i^roduct of this article exceeds 
£80,000. 

artists' materials. 

The number of painters, professors of drawing, of water-color and min- 
iature painting, j^astel drawing, of engravers, wood and lithographic 
draughtsmen, &c., amounts to more than 6,000. These 6,000 artists — aU 
of whose names are not, doubtless, celebrated, but at least obtain a living 
by their i^encil, chisel, or burin — employ more than £240,000 worth per 
annum of fine colors, canvas, panels, brushes, varnish, &c. To the cost of 
materials to these artists must be added the still larger sum expended by 
their i^upils and by amateurs every year. It is quite safe, therefore, to 
estimate the total amount of this industry at £800,000. Machinery plays 
a certain part in the loreparation of colors, trituration, grinding, and 
washing, but it is not universally employed. Each establishment has 
stiU the aspect of those of the alchemists of the middle ages, and works 
Avithout publishing its processes, its secrets — in a word, that which con- 
stitutes its specialty. It is admitted that France makes the best of oil 
colors, pastels, and canvas ; the last are superior, as regards finish and 
dimensions, to those made in other countries. The proofs lie in the 
orders received from foreign artists, and even foreign governments. It 
must be admitted, however, that A\dth respect to water colors the French 
makers have serious competition to contend with, as regards quality, 
especially in the case of England ; but some French houses have made 
great efforts to rival the quality of the English colors, Avhile at the same 
time selling them at a lower price. The instruments and apparatus 
employed by painters, engravers, lithographers, arcliitects, engineers, 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 43 

and sculptors, present an immense variety. Pencils and brnslies occupy 
in tlieir production more tlian 2,000 men and women. Frencli bruslies are 
greatly preferred by foreigners to those of tlieir own make, and amount 
in value to several millions of francs. Drawing-boards, T — squares, 
&c., used especially by arcliitects and engineers^ form a remarkable branch 
of industry, and tlie same may be said of Indian ink, printing ink, cbromo- 
litbograpliic colors, and engravers' and litliograpliers' materials. The 
making of lay figures for painting draperies calls for serious study of 
anatomy and mechanism. It requires encouragement, as it does not 
supply sufficient remuneration to the persons engaged in it. IJ^Teverthe- 
less, by perseverance, several manufacturers have achieved results which 
deserve to be noticed. The same remark will apply to easels, color-boxes, 
and, above all, to the metal tubes which enclose color ground in oil. The 
transfer from their canvas, the remounting and the reparation of pic- 
tures — in short, the means used for preserving works of art, form a 
branch of art to which too much attention cannot be invited. As an 
industry it is equally useful and interesting, and it may be affirmed that 
the best results and the greatest study have been made in France in con- 
nection with it, and that it is still the object of highly praiseworthy 
eiforts. 

There were but two exhibitors of i)aper from the United States. Jessup 
& Moore, of Philadelphia, sent specimens of paper made from wood^ 
straw, and hemp. The other display consisted of white and straw papers, 
of excellent qualities, from the San Lorenzo mills, Santa Oruz county, 
California. This establishment has been in operation about six years^ 
and now i^roduces annually about 31,000 reams of straw pai^er and 7,000 
reams of white newspaper ; the total production is valued at over $100,000. 

In the Wurtemberg section a machine for making paper pulp or paste 
out of wood was shown in operation. Logs of wood at one end of the 
machine were cut into billets a foot long by a circular saw. These billets 
were then subjected to the action of the machine, and were delivered at 
the other end in the form of a white paste or pulp, which is used to mix 
\\ith rag pulp to the extent of fiom 25 to 60 per cent. This invention is 
claimed by the firm of H. Wolker & Sons, at Heidenheim. 

There are now 20 paper establishments in operation at Wurtemberg, 
having 28 machines and 237 rag-mills, and 29 estabhshments where hand 
labor alone is emploj-ed. The total production of paper is about 15,800,000 
pounds, representing a value of £265,708, most of which is exported. 
The principal localities of the manufactures are Dettingin, Faiu^ndeau, 
Goppingen, Heidenheim, Helbronn, and Pfulliiigen. 

In addition to paper made from wood and straAv, there was exhibited 
in the French section paper made of '' esparto," (the Spanish rush,) the 
fibres of the palm tree, the aloe, the Indian fig or cactus, and from sea- 
weed. Excepting the last, these are all fibrous plants, possessing in 
some instances a length of fibre sufficient even for other manufacturing 
purposes. The sea-weed, in addition to its known tenacity, possesses a 



44 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

sort of giiie, wliicli, it is claimed, renders it valuable as a mixture mtli 
other substauces. 

France excels in many varieties of pajjer, especially those used for 
l)rinting and fancy purposes. England manufactures most of the finest 
qualities, and enjoys almost a monopoly for certain kinds used in the 
arts. Holland was once famous for its i^aper. It had but two exhibit- 
ors. The paper of Venice, inferior to that of Holland, enjoyed a great 
reputation 200 years ago, and up to a late period the letter pai)er of 
Naples was considered the best in the world. iSTo one would have that 
opinion now. Spanish paper has also had its vogue y but the only branch 
of the manufacture in which Spain now excels is in the pai)er for cigar- 
ettes. Linen is still the ordinary wear of the peasantry in Spain ; linen 
rags are there more easily obtained than in other countries, and from 
these a thin and admirably tough paper is conscientiously made. 

CLASS 8.— APPLICATIONS OF DEAWINO AND MODELLING TO 
THE COMMON ARTS. 

Class 8 comi^rises artistic productions applicable as models and orna- 
ments for industrial purposes. They are: 1. Designs for printing — 
Dresses, fancy silks, foulards, ribbons, muslins, cotton fabrics, woollen 
goods, chintzes, &c. 2. Designs for weaving — Shawls, carpets, hang- 
ings, &c. 3. Designs for embroidery, lace, &c. 4. Designs for furnish- 
ing — Paper hangings, fiu^niture, pottery, &c. 5. Designs for ornamenta- 
tion, models, &c. — for jewelry, i^late, fine iron and lock works, cameos, 
engravings, wood, copper, ivory, bronze, and other metals, stained glass, 
&c. 6. Designs and objects of industrial modellings, obtained by mechan- 
ical means, (reductions, enlargements, and photo-sculpture.) 

It will thus be seen that tlie number and variety of objects exhibited 
in this class was very great, comprising not only drawing upon j)aper for 
tissues, but models for carvings in wood, ivory, metal, glass, and stone. 

There were but two exhibitors in the United States section — one of 
embossed locket and miniature frames ; the other, J. Rogers, of New 
York, three groups of statuettes. 

The Science and Art Department of the South Kensington museum, 
London, sent a series of illustrations of the course of drawing, painting, 
and modelling, and studies for the improvement of manufactures pm^sued 
m that institution, and also a collection of reproductions of works of art, 
for the use of museums or similar schools of art. 

Inasmuch as these articles form an entirelj^ new branch of commerce 
as AveU as of useful instruction, and have for tlieir end the instruction 
of labor where skiU is required, it is thought desirable to give a full 
description of what they consist. They are commercial to the extent 
that any museum or school can i)rocure exact copies of them, and thus 
be on a satisfactory level at once with the material of a good art school. 
A few particulars Avill explain the value of this fact. In all countries 
examples of more or less excellence for the use of art schools have been 



APPAEATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 45 

prepared. They are easily obtained. But, besides the production of 
work to be used as a course of study for training the hand and the eye, 
the culture of taste and of sound principles of art have to be promoted 
by placing before the decorative artist the piu^est specimens of ancient 
and modern production , wherein handicraft skill has realized beautiful 
design. For this end all countries have gradually awakened to the neces- 
sity of founding museums and collections of rare and beautiful objects 
for use and reference. Such works, however, were difficult to obtain, 
and as museums multiplied the difficulty naturally increased. It then 
became absolutely necessary to discover a means of reproduction that 
was at once faithful and cheap. The various processes of the electro- 
type, of photography, of chromo-lithography, of gelatine and gutta- 
l^ercha moulding, &c., were called into play. The English government, 
in the interest of their own schools of industrial art, left no means 
untried, and at length succeeded. After the Exi)osition of 1855, the 
French Emperor responded to its request to allow the most valuable 
jewels, crystals, enamels, &c., in the Louvre to be photographed, and he 
placed at the disposal of the English government the means of carefully 
coloring those photographs after the originals. On a subsequent occa- 
sion he added permission to mould, for electrotyping, the finest pieces of 
armor in the Musee d'ArtiUerie, and allowed repetitions to be made from 
the casts prepared for France from the Trajan column. Other countries 
have since i)ermitted similar reproductions, so that now almost any 
remarkable object, exacliy reproduced in size, color, and present appear- 
ance, can be obtained. The boon is of inestimable value. It places 
within the reach of small associate bodies of students the power of 
studying the finest specimens of art from aU quarters of the earth, to 
^dsit which, apart from the matter of expense, would be the work of a 
lifetime. An idea of the material may be gathered from the fact that in 
the British section were sho^vn plaster casts from the pulpits of Gio- 
vanni and Mcolo Pisano ; of part of the door of Santiago de Oomj^os- 
teUa in Spain ; electrotj^pes from the gates of the cathedral of Pisa ; from 
the bases of the standards on the piazza at Yenicej electrotypes of 
armor in the Musee dArtillerie ; of the coronation plate in the Tower of 
London; of rare objects in the South Kensington Museum, and of colored 
imitative drawings, photographs, etchings, and chromo-lithographs of 
the choicest works of Europe. 

There were 22 exhibitors in this class from England, 36 from Italy, and 
41 from Switzerland. In the French section there were 240 exhibitors, 
mostly of designs and engravings. The following observations upon the 
relations of the French school of design to the manufactures of the empire 
are translated from the introduction to the Class in the catalogue : 

'^ Schools of design, established in most of the great manufacturing 
centres, have contributed to disseminate in France the most elevated 
notions of industrial art. Paris is the centre par excellence from which 
radiate to the varied branches of our national industry the highest inspi- 



46 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

rations of taste, elegance and novelty. The most distingiiislied pupils 
of tlie provinces come to Paris to perfect themselves in design, and many 
establish themselves advantageously there. It is in Paris, then, that we 
must seek the source of the great artistic current. In certain industries 
many large manufacturers who formerly had designers attached to their 
establishments now prefer to apply to Parisian artists for designs more 
novel in themselves and more adapted to the various demands of the 
consumer. Some artists work alone, or assisted by a small number of 
pupils; but all those who have made themselves a name have created 
ateliers^ where young men come to perfect themselves in their art. Some 
of these workshops confine themselves to one specialty; others, veritable 
sources of industrial information, combine several branches of design. 
The raw material holds an insignificant place. The .intrinsic value of 
the drawings and models is merely nominal. Their importance and merit 
are due to the artistic inspiration alone. The methods employed are 
extremely simple; in fact, it may be said that there is no manufacture, 
properly so-called, because the mechanical processes merely serve to 
carry out or to produce the designs or the models, which are the personal 
work of the artists. The manufacture only commences with the indus- 
trial execution, that is to say, with the manufactured product; the 
design itself, whatever may be the material to which it is aj^plied, has 
few essential differences. As already remarked, the establishment of 
ateliers is on the increase. In such cases the artist selects his assistants 
and x^ortions out the work according to circumsl^nces. He remunerates 
his employes by the day or by task work ; sometimes, even, by annual 
salaries, according to their merit or to the value of their work. From 
the first idea placed ui)on paper or x)laster to the finished design or model 
which is to serve for the manufactiu^e, each sketch passes through a long- 
series of artistic elaborations. The master-artist finds in the co-opera- 
tion of others acting under his orders at once economy as regards time 
and greater perfection of execution. It is almost impossible to supply 
any exact information relative to the value of works of industrial art, 
because the cost is included and mixed up ^Yith the price of the manu- 
factured objects. The i)rice of this artistic contribution varies with the 
products. It is higher or lower in i^roportion to the demand for the 
objects themselves.^' 

The fullest exhibition of the works of pupils in art schools was made 
by Wurtemberg. The students, as in England, seem to be taught prac- 
tical geometry, perspective and mechanical drawing, of which good 
examples were exhibited; the course of orthographic projection being- 
very full. In freehand drawing, a clear and precise system of outline 
seems to be sought after, and the early training of the hand and eye to 
correctness carefully attended to. The shading from the casts was more 
with the i>oint than with the stump, the object of the schools apparently 
being to form good draughtsmen and modellers — intelligent artisans 
skilled to handle the pencil and the modelling tool, and able thoroughly 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 47 

to compreliend working drawings ratlier than to instruct designers for 
manufactin'e or to instil the principles of decorative art. Italy, Bava- 
ria, and Austria also exiiibited specimens of their schools of art. They 
were similar to those from Wurtemberg without being better. 

CLASS 9 —PHOTOGRAPHIC PPvOOFS AND APPARATUS. 

Class 9 includes: 1st. Photographs on paper or on glass; 2d. Photo- 
graphic enamels; 3d. Photographs obtained in printing ink by the vari- 
ous processes of heliographic engraving, or of photo-lithography; 4th. 
Photographs obtained on metal or on paper, with the colors of nature ; 5th. 
Specimens of the various applications of photography; 6th. Apparatus 
and wood-work for photography, chemical, and all other accessories. 

The Exposition - was exceedingly rich in the number and variety of 
photographs exhibited, but the spectmens were in general widely separa- 
ted and not displayed to advantage. If all could have been assembled 
in a special gallery the interest in them would have been greatly increased 
and there would have been an opportunity for direct comparisons. France 
had 165 exhibitors, Great Britain 105, Austria 58, Prussia 52, Italy 42, 
and the United States 17. 

There does not appear to have been any recent marked advance in the 
art. The progress has been chiefly in the direction of production of photo- 
graphs in enamel and upon i)orcelain and glass, and in the heliographic 
process, by which the pictures are engraved upon copper or steel, so that 
they may be multiplied by printing. There are several exhibitors of 
such plates and of photographs engraved upon lithographic stones. 
Lackerbauer, of Paris, exhibited lithographic engra^dngs of objects and 
microscopic preparations magnified from 5 to 2,500 times, l^o satisfac- 
tory results in the alftemjots to produce colored i3ictures apj)ear to have 
been obtained. 

In the English section there was a very interesting series of views of 
the ancient architecture of India, as shown in the temx^les and palaces 
of the interior of that country. 

The most notable display from the United States was made by Mr. C. 
E. Watkins, of San Francisco, who sent a series of 30 views of the Yo 
Semite valley of California, and views of the gxeat trees. These photo- 
graphs were not only interesting as pictures but as splendid specimens 
of the art. The jury awarded a bronze medal. A similar series was 
sent by the firm of Lawrence & Houseworth, of the same city, with the 
addition of a great number of stereoscopic views of the interior mining 
regions of California, showing in a very distinct manner the various pro- 
cesses in use there for the extraction of gold from the soil. 

The contributions in this department of Mr. L. M. Rutherford, of ^ew 
York, are to be particularly noted for their high scientific value as well 
as peculiar excellence as photograi^hs, and for the subjects represented. 
One is a large photogTaph of the moon, representing its pitted surface 
as seen through a ]30werful telescope ; and the other is a photograph of 



48 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

the solar si)ectrnm, two feet long, showing the almost infinite number of 
dark lines. These two photographs, although scarcely noticed by the 
multitude, excited great attention and interest^among the savans, and 
received a silver medal from the jury. 

The exhibition of photographic apparatus and chemicals was very 
large. It is to be noted that the photographic art has exerted a very 
marked influence upon various branches of manufacture, particularly of 
chemicals, and that it has given gTeat imi)ulse to industry and commerce 
in these du-ections. The demand for i)hotographic apparatus and mate- 
rials is so large as to require many considerable establishments devoted 
exclusively to their i^roduction. 

Certain substances, such as hyposulphite of soda, which formerly were 
rarely employed and therefore rather exi^ensive, have been so much used 
in photographic operations as to cause them to be made on a large scale, 
and thus to reduce their i^rices to half or one-third, or even one-sixth, of 
their former value. We may mention also the sulphocyanides of iDotassa, 
and ammonia, which were only used before in the chemist's laboratory, but 
are now manufactured extensively at gas works, where large quan- 
tities can be obtained from the distillation of coal. Photography in 
France has given rise to considerable trade with foreign countries, ^ot 
only are apparatus, i)aper, and chemicals largely exi)orted, but also 
stereoscopic views on i)ax)er and other materials. 

CLASS 10.— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

The following information upon the variety of the objects exhibited in 
the French section, and upon the condition of the French manufactures 
of musical instruments and materials, is extracted from the translation 
of the report of Mr. Wolf, of the committee of admission : 

"The products exhibited in Class 10 include eight principal series, viz: 
1st. Church organs; 2d. Harmoniums; 3d. Pianos; 4th. Stringed instru- 
ments ; 5th. Wind instruments ; 6th. Percussion instruments ; 7th. Acces- 
sories for the manufacture; 8th. Editions of musical works." 

" Paris is the only imi>ortant manufacturing place for organs, pianos, and 
harmoniums. Then follows, according to importance, Marseilles, Lyons, 
Nancy, Toulouse, and Bordeaux, where pianos are chiefly manufactured. 
Stringed instruments are made i)rincipally at Mirecoiu*t; mud instru- 
ments, in wood — such as flutes, clarionnets, hautbois— are more specially 
manufactured at Lacouture, (Eure.) All kinds of instruments are also 
made in Paris. Chateau-Thierry has, likewise, no si)ecialty; nearly all 
kinds are manufactured there. 

"The woods for nmsical instruments are produced from France, Russia, 
Norway, Brazil, St. Domingo, and Isle Boui'bon. The native Avoods most 
frequently employed are oak, fir, lime, beach, maple, box and pear. These 
vary in price from 55 to 200 francs the cubic metre. Box is sold from 50 
to GO francs the 100 kilograms. The exotic woods most used are rose- 



APPARATUS AKD APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 49 

wood, inaliogany, cedar, and cedriiie, ebony and grenadille, T^llich cost 
from 15 to 150 francs the 50 kilograms. Those more generally used 
are oak, fir, and beech for the heavy parts of pianos, organs and har- 
moniums; cedar, lime, maple, and pear-tree for the mechanical parts; 
rosewood and mahogany for veneering and ornamentation; box, ebony, 
and grenadille for wind instruments. Beech and mahogany are chiefly 
in use for bassoons. Ivory for piano keys is sold from 22 to 45 francs the 
set (50 keys.) The felt, woollen stuffs, skins, and glue for pianos are 
manufactured in France. Part of the felt comes from England. There 
is in France no manufacture of metallic cords. Those in steel are 
imported from England and Germany, and are worth about 8 francs per 
kilogram. The copper covering for strings is worth from 5 J francs to 
7J francs per kilogram. The metals most in use are iron, lead, cop- 
l>er, for wind instruments ; tin for organ pipes. The gut cords are manu- 
factured in France. 

"The tools employed for working the wood are the ordinary tools of the 
joiner and cabinetmaker. However, we must notice the profile machine 
for making i)anels, which is only an improvement of the parquetry 
machine ; and also the special steel perforators for wooden Avind instru- 
ments. The only special tools in use for working metals are mandrils, 
employed in the manufacture of wind instruments. We must mention 
also, wheels for covering cords. All these tools were unknown in 1855, 
or rather have been very much improved since then. 

'' In Paris and all the large towns the men emi)loyed in the manufacture 
of musical instruments work together in the workshops ; scarcely any 
work at home. At Mirecourt, on the contrary, the men, about 250 in 
number, all work at home. Half the Paris workmen work by the piece; 
the other half by the day. The salary varies from 3 francs 25 centimes 
for common workmen, and from 5 to 11 francs for the superior artisan. 
The musical instrument trade employs few women and childi'en. 

''Part of these articles are sold in France, and part to commission mer- 
chants, who buy for exportation ; a third, perhaps the most considerable, 
is exported direct, to order, to all parts of the world. The small instru- 
ments are worth from 50 to 200 francs; harmoniums from 100 to 1,500 
francs ; violins and Adoloncellos from 200 to 500 francs ; copper instru- 
ments, 80 to 400 francs; Avind instruments, in wood, 80 to 300 francs 
pianos, 500 to 4,000 francs ; church organs, from 2,500 to 100,000 francs. 
The profits of the manufacturers vary from 12 to 18 i^er cent. The manu- 
facture of musical instruments represents a sum of twenty or twenty- 
three millions of francs per year. Eaw materials are imported into 
France to the value of five or six millions. About half the produce 
goes to foreign countries, and is exported to all parts of the Avorld, but 
particularly to America, and chiefly to South America. The importation 
is next to nothing. 

''The committee of admission for class 10 points out among the 
improvements made dimng the last ten years, in the manufacture of 
4 u E 



50 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

musical iustriTments : 1st. The consideraljle extension given to Tnedian- 
ical processes, and the general use of steam machinery; 2d. The appli- 
cation^ as far as possible, of the principles of the division of labor; 3d, 
Piece-work substituted in most cases for Avork by day.'^ 

There was no class in the Exhibition more thoroughly and comiDletely 
represented than this. Every nation contributed its cjuota to the huge 
aggregate. That the art of music ''hath charms to soothe the savage 
breast" was amply demonstrated. The wildest and strangest countries 
contributed their eccentric contrivances of bamboo and hide — ^instruments 
that were dulcet to native ears, but hideous to the average tympanum of 
civilized Europe. There were large and small drums^ in wood and clay, 
used by the Tinkaonis; rude violins covered with gazelle skin and orna- 
mented with horns and men- s heads; trumpets made of antelope horn and 
elephant's tusks, of which the sound is heard at the distance of a league : 
and perhaps worse than this, the bagpipes of the Arab tribes used in 
the region of Cordovan. Many of these instruments were of the greatest 
antiquity, and were played upon by ''i^rofessors" in the various depart- 
ments precisely in the same way as when they were invented. A few 
steps sufficed to take the spectators to an adjacent section where the 
latest improvements of Euroi)e were standing side hj side — ^impro^'e- 
ments which require the greatest technical skill to appreciate or use. 

The United States had nine exhibitors, IS^umerically considered, the 
display was insignificant, but the objects comprised in it Avere of the 
highest excellence. The piano-fortes contributed by the New York firm 
of Steinway & Sons and the Boston house of Chickering & Sons were 
considered the best in the entire Exijosition. Each was awarded a gold 
medal. The latest improvements are to be found in these instruments 
Avhich are almost wholly constructed on original plans and produce results 
of a very satisfactory character. For length of tone, brilliancy, symi)a- 
thetic quality, and magnificence of power they are unrivalled. The broad 
]nerits of both j)ianos were found to be so superior that the jury, having 
but four gold medals to award, unanimously voted two to America — an 
honor which cannot be overstated, for it was remarkable enough that 
pianos should be sent at all from America to Paris, and still more sin- 
gular that they should there be regarded as the best. 

The harmoniums and cabinet organs of Messrs. Mason & Hamlin were 
also objects of much interest, and gained the award of a silver medal. 
They were, like the pianos, admired for their Avorkmanship and for the 
singularly pure tone which they possessed. The mode of producing this 
tone Avas the subject of much curiosity, inasmuch as it differs essentially 
from the European plan, and in America has entirely superseded it. 

The Avind instruments of the Schreiber Cornet Manufacturing Com- 
pany and the string instriunents of Geniiinder, both of 'New York, also 
obtained prizes. The brass instruments of tlie former AA^ere regarded as 
excellent specimens of manufacture. The violins, &c., of Gemlinder were 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 51 

greatly admired for tlieir forms and for certain improvements wliicli that 
maker lias intr-odiiced into the construction of the instrument. 

The general display of i)iano-fortes ^vas nnnsually large. All the 
European centres of the trade sent their best specimens. These were of 
the ordinary forms — ^grand, upright* oblique^ square, and cycloid. (There 
was a specimen of the latter in the American department and several 
specimen s elsewhere. ) France was represented by Erard , Pleyel & Wolff, 
and Henry Herz ; England by Broadwood and Kirkman ; Prussia by 
Bliithner and BechstfiJs;; Wurtemberg by Schiedmayer; Austria by 
Streicher, ^&c. Of these Broadwood. took the prize for England and 
Streicher for Vienna. The pianos of the latter house are made on the 
2)lan of Messrs. Stein way & Sons. 

Of the infinite variety of wind instruments it is impossible to speak. 
It A^ill suffice to say that the efforts of all modern makers is to introduce 
a homogeneous quality into the -separate families, namely, that all those 
composed of AYOod should , sound like each other; that all those formed 
of brass shoidd bear a respectable and not overbearing relation to the 
rest of the family. Many curious instruments have been invented for 
military bands by which orchestral effects can be better imitated. 

There were innumerable specimens of stringed instruments, but with 
this it is the singular fashion to go backAvards, and progress therefore 
liad to be looked for in an inverse ratio. The ancient model of Stradiva- 
rius seemed to be the model most in favor. 

There were but few organs in the Exhibition, and the best, on account 
of the size, had to be accommodated in the machinery department. It 
was of French make and is intended for the new church at Nancy, 

CLASS 11 —SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

In this class France had 101 exhibitors, Prussia IS, Austria 10, Italy 38, 
United States 22, Great Britain 31. 

^'The articles exhibited in this class were very numerous and varied; 
they related to the practice of medicine, surgery, and hygiene, and 
included — 1. Surgical instruments used in operations, such as cutting 
instruments, forceps, tenacidse, suture needles, instruments emx)loyed in 
ami)utations, setting broken bones, &c. 2. Special instruments used in 
certain operations connected with diseases of the organs of sense, the 
respiratory passages, and the male and female genito-urinary organs, 
-3. Instruments or apparatus intended to cure natural or accidental 
deformity, such as orthopcedic instruments, bandages, belts, and elastic 
stockings. I. Articles relating to dental art which have greatly imi^roved 
of late years. 5. Instruments usually employed in determining the 
•diagnosis of diseases of the heart, lungs, eyes, &c., and those which are 
used in experimental physiology, 6. Api^aratus used in i:>ublic or private 
hygiene, such as bathing and hydropathic appliances, instruments 
emidoyed in friction, the two systems of application, electricity, arti- 
ficial lactation, and various ai)i)liances used in domestic gjmmastics* 



52 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

In France tlie principal centre of tlie manufacture of siu'gieal instru- 
ments anjl apparatus is Paris, after ^Tliicli rank those large towns Trliicli 
possess a faculty or a secondary scliool of medicines, sucli as Strasburg 
Montpellier, Lyons, Toulouse, &c. In the different manufactures con- 
nected with class 11, the principal materials employed are the metals^ 
such as steel, iron, gold, platinum, silver, and German sUver, so that, 
from one point of view, this class is closely connected with metallurgy. 

Besides the metals, many products of the mineral and vegetable king- 
doms are used; such as ivory, horn, skins, gum, and, above all. India- 
rubber. The articles exhibited in class 11 x)artake of the nature of cut- 
lery and of mathematical and philosophical instruments, but this class 
of manufactures possess comparatively limited resources, and the trade 
is necessarily spread over a large area and a more numerous constituency. 

'- The delicacy of manipulation and intelligence necessary in making 
surgical, hygienic, and orthopcedic instruments requires the greatest 
attention and care on the part of the workmen. A certain number make 
only special articles, either at their own homes or in their emT)loyers^ 
workshops. Women are employed in a large proportion. It is calculated 
that the manufactiu^e of surgical instruments and orthopoedic apparatus 
in Paris and the provinces, gives emx)loyment to from 3,500 to 4,000 
workers, male and female. A large number of these articles are sent 
into the country or abroad. Foreign manufacturers also have closely 
copied our own inventions, and have, nearly everywhere, endeavored to 
reproduce French instruments and apparatus. It is difficult to estimate 
the value of the articles produced in this complicated trade. Simiily 
taking into consideration siu'gieal instruments, bandages, andortho- 
poedic api^aratus made in France, the productions may be valued at 
13,000,000 to 14,000,000 francs. These figures would be largely increased 
if hygienic, hydropathic, and other api)aratus were included in the esti- 
mate. This committee has but few changes to point out since the exhi- 
bition of 1855, either in the instruments themselves or in the mode of 
manufactiue, but the improvements in the instruments have been very 
numerous; such as the extended apphcation of certain products, caout- 
chouc, for instance, and the progress made in the management of baths 
and thermal establishments." — (Extract from the report of the members 
of the committee of admission of class 11.) 

Among the many interesting objects from the United States in this 
class, the exhibition made by the Siugeon General was particularly com- 
plete and worthy of attention. It included ambulances, medicine wagons, 
iwmj field hosi)itals, and litters which were used throughout the war, and 
the best artificial limbs which have been invented. 

The displays of American artificial teeth and of dental ijistruments and 
a])paratus was very creditable to this branch of the healing art. 

Pertaining to this class and described elsewhere was the exhibition 
of the societies for aiding wounded soldiers and sailors. 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS 53 

CLASS 12.— MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS 
FOR TEACHING SCIENCE. 

The Frencli exhibition in this department is decidedly the largest and 
most interesting. The niannfacturers of instruments of precision have 
folly maintained their high reputation for the accuracy, elegance, and 
cheapness of their productions. Of the 107 exhibitors in this class, we 
may note the following as prominent in their respective specialties: 
^uhmkorff exhibits a variety of electrical, magnetic, and electro-mag- 
netic instruments, and particularly several enormous coils bearing his 
name, but known in the United States as the Ritchie coil. Auchet & 
Son exhibit a great variety of excellent microscopes, arranged for one or 
more observers at the same time, and an apparatus for microscopic pro- 
jection and reproduction. Soleil exhibited several optical instruments 
of interest to mineralogists and chemists, particularly a polarizing micro- 
scope upon the i)attern of M. Descloizeaux, together with numerous 
crystals cut and polished so as to show their optical characters. Deleuil 
exhibited philosophical and assay balances, photometers, machine for 
the solidification of gas, pneumatic machines, force pumps, Foucault's 
pendulum for demonstration. M. Deschanel, member of the committee 
of admission, subdivides class 12 as follows, and adds some interesting- 
general observations : 

'^1. Instruments intended for scientific research and education. 2. 
Special optical instruments, microscopes, telescopes, and field-glasses. 
3. Mathematical instruments, graduated rules and compasses, levels of 
all kinds, and geodetical circles, whether for the use of the marine or of 
engineers. 4. Barometers and thermometers, of which glass forms the 
principal element of manufacture. 5. Apx^aratus intended to carry a 
new idea into effect, or to execute a known operation by a new process, 
and special api)aratus, which, without being new, have a special object, 
and consequently do not enter into the x)receding series. Lastly, col- 
lections of natural or artificial i^reparations intended to illustrate the 
three great natural kiugdoms. This series of the naturalist's prepa- 
rations, logically connected as much with that of medical art as witli 
natural i^hilosophy, also forms part of another class. The production 
of philosophical instruments is confined almost exclusively to Paris. In 
some of the ports, however, there are special makers of mariners' com- 
passes for ordinary navigation. In the Jura and in Picardy are to be 
found some manufactories of optical glasses, intended for common instru- 
ments, and which draw their materials from the works of St. Gobain. 
For carefully constructed instrimients, glass of a special kind is produced 
in Paris itself. For other kinds of instruments ordinary glass is employed. 
According to the statistics collected by order of the Chamber of Com- 
merce in the year 18G0, the value of this manufacture in Paris amounted 
to 15,861,720 francs. Since the exhibition of 1855 the progress in the 
construction of scientific instniments has followed that of science itself. 



5^ PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Among' the articles wliicli exliibit a deticledly enlianced importance, we 
may mention telescopes ^^itli silyered reflector^^ apparatus for the pro- 
duction of inductive currents, electro-magnetic machines, the regulators 
for the electric light, and optical indicators of the vibrations of sonorous 
bodies.'^ 

In the American section the instruments sent by the United States 
Coast Survey comprised some of the instruments of navigation, and a 
thermometer fc)r measuring' the temi^erature of the sea at great depths„ 
The beautiful graduated rules, squares, and gauging instruments made 
by Darling, Bangor, Maine, attracted much attention from those inter- 
ested in such objects. 

CLASS 13.— MAPS AND GEOGEAPHICAL AND COSMOGEAPHI- 

CAL APPARATUS. 

The folloAving complete and instructive apergu of the exhibition made 
by France in this class, is a. translation of the introduction to the class 
\)j the committee of admission : 

'' The 'objects of class 13, which figaire for the first time in a universal 
exhibition, may be divided into four series : 1. Maps^ whether separate 
or forming atlases, including geographical, cosmogTaphical, astronomicaL 
marine, hydrogTax)hical, topographical, g*eological, agronomical, histori- 
cal, itinerary, meteorological, or other maps. 2. Terrestrial or celestial 
globes, ui^anographic apparatus, &c. 3. Maps and charts in relief. 1. 
Works, tables, pictm^es, and other accessories of geography' and cos- 
mography.-' 

"Paris is tlie owlj centre of production of these works, even of those 
which are edited or published in the provinces. Ajiiong the material 
employed, the copper and steel are prepared in Paris by the planers and 
polishers, who supply the engravers. The lithographic stones come prin- 
cipally from Bavaria, (near Munich,) but during the last few years they 
have been obtained also at Yigan, (Card,) nearly of equal value and at 
a much lower price. Quarries have also recently been discovered in 
Isere, (Cerin, Crey.) The sized paper, almost the oidy kind employed., 
is produced in the Yosges, Isere, (Eives,) and Angouleme j the unsized 
paper is obtained from Mevre (Clemency) and the Marais, (Seine and 
Marne.) The processes of the manufactiu'e are : Engraving on copper, 
steely and stone : engraving on wood or metal ; lithography or d^rawing 
on stone ; autography ; the transfer on to stone of engraved work, and 
chromo-lithogra])hy, The laying down of the maps on cloth constitutes 
a supplementary operation frequently called into use. The persons 
engaged in this branch of industry include designers or draughtsmen,, 
map and writing engravers, colorists, mounters and binders, globe and 
vSphere makers, lithographers and few pliotographers, and lastly, copper- 
plate and lithographic printers. The last named are generally engaged 
in large estal)lis]iinents. in which the printing of maps is but a secondary 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 55 

matter; tlie rest ^^ork eitlier at home or in small Tvork-sliop^s^, ^'liere not 
more tkau 25 or 30 persons at tlie utmost are engaged. 

^' There are m Paris about a dozen emijloj-^ers and 150 artists and work- 
men engaged in the specialty of geographical industry. The produc- 
tions of French cartographic establishments are principally destined for 
the institutions of public instruction in France ; the remainder is sent 
to South America. Eussia, Germany, jS'orth America, Italy, Spain, and 
England, Egj^i^t a^nd Algeria also take a certain quantity. The depot 
of the war department and that of the marine assist greatly in this expor- 
tation, either through the mediums of booksellers or by their depots 
abroad. The maps and globes imported come x)rincipally from England, 
and the total value is between 40,000 and 45,000 francs. The exi)ort is 
estimate<l at about 150,000 francs, out of a total production of the value 
of 400,000 francs. The military and naval establishments furnish about 
one-quarter, not including the large number of maps which they supply 
to various public departments, and especially to the naval service belong- 
ing to the state.'^ 

Among the improvements which have been made in this business diu"- 
ing the last 12 years, the following may be pointed out : " 1. Imparting a 
steel-like hardness to copper plates, with the view of making them serve 
for a longer period. 2. The emplojmient of photography as an exi)edi- 
tious method of multiplying, enlarging, and reducing dra^^ings. 3. The 
lieliograi>hic method of engraving on stone or copper. 4. Chromo-hth- 
ography and chromo-printing. Many colors are now applied to maps, par- 
ticularly for special maps. 5. The extended use of relief maps, made to 
the same scale, as regards the vertical and horizontal measurements, 
6. Printing on curved siufaces for globes, 7, The increased use of vari- 
ous methods of projection. The above iuformation applies to the draw- 
ing out of maps. As to the original operations of surveying and pro- 
jection, they are centralized, as far as regards terrestrial geography, at 
the war office, and for navigation at the admiralty. The pubhshers gen- 
erally avail themselves of the productions of these two departments for 
the preparation of maps for the trade, making use, however, also of offi- 
cial documents fiumished hj foreign governments^ as weU as of the works 
of travellers and literarti of all countries." 

MAPS FROM YARIOUS COUNTRIES. 

Among the numerous, large, and interesting maps from various coun- 
tries, one from Eussia, a relief map of Caucasus, is worthy of particular 
notice. It was upon a large scale, so that the highest mountains rose 
fuUy six inches al)ove the sea level, and every detail of the topography 
and the distribution of forests appeared to be accurately given. In the 
English section a relief map of India on a large scale showed the chain 
of the Himalaya, the high idains of Asia, the valley of the Ganges, and 
the lines of railway, in a most striking manner. 

The Geological Survey of the United Kingdom sent a full series of its 



56 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITIOl^T. 

geological maps and sections, all elegantly bound, and specimen slieets 
of the ordnance maps were to be fonnd in the same section. 

In the United States section the principal contributions were from the 
Coast Siu^vey olfice, Washington, of a full series of the published maps 
of the survey, printed on large, thick pai)er. 

In the preparation of the British ordnance maps, resoiuxe has been 
had to processes comparatiYely unknown, and the facilities thus discov- 
ered have led to interesting results. These were exhibited in the same 
department^ and may be briefly described. They consisted of two very 
remarkable publications, namely, a photozincographic fac simile of 
"Doomsday Book" and the "Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem." Every 
boy who has studied history has heard of "Doomsday Book." It was 
made by order of William the Conqueror, in 1086. It contains a descrip- 
tion of the owners and inhabitants of every manor, hundred, tillage, &c.. 
in England, with the exception of ]N"orthumberland, Cumberland, West- 
moreland, and Durham, and an estimate of the area of the lands and 
their cultivation. Besides its value as an ancient historical docujnent, it 
is of great interest as showing the ownership of the country at that 
remote period, A copy of ^'^ Doomsday Book" was published at the end 
of the last century at great cost, but the type was accidentally destroyed 
by fire, and copies are now rare and expensive. By the art of photozin- 
cography an exact fac simile has been reproduced at a comparatively 
insignificant cost. A county, for instance, costs from $2 to $6 cmTcncy, 
The modus operandi by which the result is obtained is thus described: A 
photographic negative of the map or drawing to be reproduced is first 
made. A positive print is then taken on paper xirepared with a solution 
of gelatine and bichromate of potash, mixed up with lithographic ink. 
The effect of the light on this solution is to render it insoluble^ therefore, 
after the i^rint has been taken, those portions wliicli were protected from 
the light can be washed away, leading intact the remaining insoluble por- 
tions which correspond to the lines of the map or drawing. This can then 
be transferred at once to zinc or stone, and i)rinted in the same way as if 
the plan had been drawn on lithographic transfer paper. Tlius a plan 
which it would take weeks or months to copy by hand for litliography. 
can, by this i^rocess, be executed in a few hoiu^s, and with a fidelity which 
no copyist could hope to rival. 

The survey of Jerusalem was made, in 18()i:-'G5, by a party of sappers, 
who were detached for that purpose from the ordnance survey of En glands 
The funds were provided by Miss Burdett Coutts, and others, the special 
object being to obtain a basis on which to Avork for improving iliQ sani- 
tary condition of the city, esi)eciaUy as regards drainage and water 
supply. Thus for the first time a map of the Holy City has been produced 
that can be relied on with, certainty in discussing the localities and events 
connected with its history, which are of such deep interest to the Avhole 
civilized world. The map is accompanied by pliotographs of different 
parts of the city and neigliborhood, which were taken vrhile the survey 



APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 57 

Tvas ill progress, and also by pliotozincograplis. During tlie eoiu'se of 
tlie snrvey tlie ancient aqnednct from Solomon's x)ools, wliicL. snpplied 
tlie city with water, was traced. It is a work of tlie liigliest engineering 
skill, and in so good a state of preservation tliat, at very little cost, it has 
been put into such a state of repairthat water has actually been again 
conveyed through it for the use of the city. In connection with this 
survey a line of levels was also run between the Mediterranean and Dead 
seas, in order to settle accurately the much vexed question of the amount 
of depression of the latter below the former. The result showed it to be 
1,290 feet. 

Austria and Switzerland exhibited beautiful maps, showing and not 
showing the hill features of the respective countries. The object of the 
latter is to secure greater clearness. Austria exhibits a map of Bohemia, 
the most ridgy and mountainous country in her possession, without the 
indication of an elevation. The well-known map of Switzerland, by 
General Dufour, is still regarded as the best work of its kind in exist- 
ence. It is a complete and i)icturesque representation of the most 
romantic country in Europe. 

Elsewhere in this report mention has been made of a well-executed 
model of the Isthmus of Suez. In the French coiu^t Avas also exhibited 
an interesting map of the region by Goujon, of Paris, showing the course 
of the proposed canal. The undertaking being of general interest, a few 
particulars here of its i)rogress may not be out of i)lace. The map and 
model show the works not as they are, but as they will be when com- 
pleted. These, works consist of two distinct portions, a fresh-water and 
a maritime canal 5 the former is about six feet deep, and 50 or 60 feet 
broad at the top, with shelving sides. It starts from the Mle at Cairo, 
runs in an easterly direction as far as Lake Tinisah, which forms a por- 
tion of the maritime canal, and then, bending to the south, terminates at 
Suez. This canal is completed. Its object is to supi:)ly with fresh water 
the laborers and machines einploj^ed in the maritime canal, and also to 
afford to the town of Suez a plentiful supply of fresh water, which v\'as 
much needed. 

The maritime canal is still in a very miniature state. It starts from 
Port Said, on the Mediterranean, and is to traverse the isthmus to 
Suez, with sufficient works at its extremities to aiford good harbors in 
both seas. Its breadth is to be 100 metres (rather more than 100 yards) 
at the level of the Avater, and its depth about 26 feet. The portion 
between Port Said and Lake Tinisah is so far adA^anced that barges, 
toAved by steam tugs, can traverse it to the latter i^oint, AAdiere, by means 
of locks, they are placed on the fresh-Avater canal, by Avliich they can 
reach Suez. Thus, there is already Avater communication from sea to sea ; 
but, before the fleets of the world can be transported across the isthmus, 
much time must elapse, and a A'ast amount of money must be expended. 
The cost of the works up to this time is said to be $15,000,000 specie. 

In all the countries of Eiu'ope the necessity has been recognized of 



58 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

liaviiig a detailed and accurate map Trliich sliould be available for mili- 
tary and other purposes. The scales on which these surveys have been 
published have varied from about three inches to a mile to about three 
miles to an inch. First in point of scale comes the little electorate of 
Hesse, now politically extinct, the excellent map of which is published 
on a scale of 1 in 25,000, or about three inches to a mile, Belgium comes 
next, 1 in 40,000 ; then Baden, Bavaria, Sardinia, Holland, Wui^temberg, 
Oldenberg, Grand Duchy of Hesse, 1 in 50,000 5 Saxony, 1 in 57,600; 
Great Britain, 1 in 63,360, (afterwards increased to 1 in 10,560, and again 
to 1 in 2,500 ',) Denmark, France, and part of Prussia, 1 in 80,000 ; Lom- 
bardy, Yenetia, States of the Church, Tuscany, Parma, Placentia, Guas- 
tella, 1 in 86,400 ; Hanover, Portugal, Prussia, Sweden, Switzerland, 1 
in 100,000; Schleswig-Holstein, 1 in 120,000; Eussia in Europe, 1 in 
126,000 ; Austria, 1 in 144,000 ; Norway and Greece, 1 in 200,000. The 
survey of Great Britain commenced in 1784 ; that of France (the new 
map) in 1818. Belgium has been late in the tield. Only a few sheets 
are published. The last country in Europe to recognize the necessity of 
a government survey (except Turkey) was Spain. Within the last year 
or two steps have been taken to remedy the defect. In Turkey no gov- 
ernment survey exists. 

It will be seen by the above particulars that the only important step 
in the way of topographical x>recision has been taken by the British gov- 
ernment. It was found that the scale of one inch to a mile was not suf- 
ficiently large to make the maps available for many important operations 
in which mai)s are speciall}^ necessary— such as the apportionment of 
taxation, the registry and transfer of property, &c. It was therefore 
determined to increase the scale to six inches to a mile, and subsequently 
to 25 inches to a mile, on which scale the ordnance survey of England 
and Scotland is now being carried on. Specimens of the English maps 
on aU three scales were exhibited, and also of town surveys on the extra- 
ordinary scales of five and ten feet to a mile* 



GROUP III. 

FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR THE USE 
OF DWELLINGS. 

Class 14. Furniturk.— Class 15. Upiiolj^tery and Decorative Work.— Class 16. 
Flint and Other Glass; Stained Glass.— Class 17. Porcelain, Earthenware^ 
AND other Fancy Pottery.— Class 18. Carpets, Tapestry, and Furniture 
Stuffs.— Class ]9. Paper-hanging.— Class 20. Cutlery.— Class 21. Gold and 
Silver Plate. — Class 22. Bronzes and other Artistic Castings, and Ee- 
poussE Work. — Class 23. Clock and Watch-work.— Class 24. Apparatus ant> 
Processes for Heating and Lighting.— Class 25. Perfumery.— Class 26, 
Leather Work, Fancy Articles, and Basket Work. 

CLASS 14.— FUENITURE; AND CLASS 15.— UPHOLSTEEY AND 
DECORATIVE WORK. 

Class 14 iuclucled furniture, such as sideboards, bookcases, tables, bed- 
steads, chairs, billiard tables, &c. ; and class 15 comprehended upholstery, 
l)ed fm^nitiu^e, coverings, curtains, hangings, articles of ornament, and 
ecclesiastic as well as domestic furniture. 

The principal displays of fine furniture were to be found in the French, 
English, and the Italian sections. In the former there were 220 exhibit- 
ors, in the next 41, and in the latter ()(). The United States numbered 
only nine. It cannot be said that there were any prevailing styles. The 
principal objects might be referred to the Gothic, Eenaissance, Egyi^tian^ 
Etruscan, and Pompeian. 

The observer from the United States, accustomed only to the furniture 
there, coidcl not fail to be impressed with the general use of ebony as the 
material for ornamental furniture, and with the richness of the decora- 
tions of ivory, porcelain tablets, and enamels, and with metallic bas- 
reliefs, medallions, and figures. It is e^ddent that the use of these deco- 
rations is largely increasing, and that a great impulse is thereby to be 
given to the reproduction of suitable ornaments and to new designs. 
The metallic ornaments consist chiefly of the choicest productions of the 
galvano-plastic art, and they are left either in their usual bronzed condi- 
tion, or are silvered, and in some cases thickly gilded by the same 
process. 

The finer and highest colored stones, such as lapis-lazuli, malachite, 
and the choice marbles, are now freely used in the fronts and sides of 
fine cabinets, sideboards, and similar pieces. Some of the richest exam- 
ples of such inlapng were found in theltalian and Eussian sections. In 
the former lapis-lazuli tablets and columns ornamenting ebony cabinets 



60 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

"were abiindaiitly displayed, together with choice Florentine mosaics and 
a series of splendid inlaid tables. 

The Eussian cabinets in the style of Lonis XIY were remarkable for 
their beanty and valne, being made of ebony and inlaid with broad tab- 
lets of the finest colored lapis-laznli, and adorned with bnnches of fruits 
and flowers, carved with wonderful fidelity to nature, out of precious 
stones. These cabinets were made at the imperial establishment of Peter- 
hoff, and the finest was valued at 27,418 roubles. 

In the English section the displays made by Trollope & Sons, Holland 
& Sons, Gillow & Co., Wright & Mansfield, were particularly noticeable 
for their elegance and excellence. The last -mentioned firm received the 
gold medal for their display, which included fine specimens of inlaid 
maple, ornamented with porcelain tablets. 

In the Prussian display in this class the most notable feature was an 
alcove fiUed with carved wahiut farniture in the Eenaissance style. The 
Wurtemberg section was characterized by the beauty of the samples of 
inlaid floors sent by Wirth & Sons, Stuttgart. Other fine exhibitions of 
parquetry were noted from Bembe and from Knussman, of Mayence, 
Hesse. 

The exhibition from the United States did not in any degree represent 
the actual condition of the manufacture of either common or fine furni- 
ture. A few folding steamer, or camp chaks, and rocking-chairs from 
Massachusetts, with an inlaid table from Wisconsin, (honorable mention,) 
and an ornamented door from San Francisco, composed the exhibition. 
The door from California was a beautiful specimen of the laurel wood of 
that State, and of excellent workmanship — superior, decidedly, to any- 
thing of the kind in the Exhibition. 

Denmark has an interesting and curious exhibition, contributed by a 
society for the encomia gement of art workmen. There was a cabinet on 
legs of ebony, lightly carved in parts and inlaid with red and green tor- 
toise shell. The green color, like the red, is given by painting the ground 
on which the shell is laid. This is applied in large medallioiis, each sur- 
rounded by a line of brass. Several other objects were exhibited, all of 
them conveying a high idea of the solid good taste of the country that 
sent them. 

Italy made a great shoAV of artistic cabinet work. The trade appears 
to be reviving in the land which gave it birth. The Italian models of 
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries are still regarded as the most 
perfect in existence. They show what is not ahvays remembered in the 
present day — the proper way of treating ivory in combination with ebony. 
IN'ot only nmst the ebony be almost covered with delicate traceries of 
ivory, but in the parts where the ivory forms masses its Avhiteness must 
be corrected by engravings filled in witli black. In this way all violent 
contrast is avoided, and the decorator, with only two elements to work 
upon, obtains a third means of effect from the power of modifying to 
any extent the tone of the ivory. For instance, where a plate of ivory 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 61 

intended to be engraA'ed Tritli a subject is inserted on a flat surface of 
ebony, a close liatcliing gives a border wliicli forms an easy transition 
from tlie black to tlie white, and, as we liave said, tlie pure white is only 
used in very line or closely interlaced lines in direct contact with the 
ebony. This work was frequent in France about the year 1550. 

The following general observations upon the manufacture of fiu^niture 
in France are extracted from the official catalogue : 
■ ^'All the inincipal furniture makers who have given real importance 
to their trade have experienced considerable advantage by adding to it 
tlie sale of e^^ery thing connected with decoration and ornament, and with 
very few exceptions their establishments undertake ui)holstery as well. 
On the other hand, the best upholsterers manufacture, or commission the 
manufactiu'ers to make for them in their name, all kinds of elegant fur- 
niture and cabinet work. It is the same in the case of beds and bedding, 
now made bj' manufacturers of furniture as well as by upholsterers. 

''A few years ago the manufactm^e of elegant furnitiu^e in France was 
almost exclusively confined to Paris 5 but of late some imx)ortant firms 
have arisen at Bordeaux, Lyons, ISTantes, and in several other to^^iis, such 
as Troyes and St. Quentin. These, however, are not numerous, and the 
Paris trade has much extended since the last universal exhibition, and 
1)ecome more important than ever, on account of the increasing demands 
caused by the greater comfort and elegance of the nevv^ habitations. The 
reports on the international exhibition of 1862 showed, in relation to all 
tlie trades connected with furnitm^e and decoration, the valuable assist- 
ance obtained by great establishments from artists of approved merit, 
and the great improvement thus produced, both as regards good taste 
and x)ractical fitness. The manufacturers have understood the advantage 
to be derived from art, together with that technical ability that French 
industry possesses in so high a degree, and have boldly entered into the 
new x)ath, which has already in some cases led to the most brilliant suc- 
cesses. The most important improvements to be noted during the last 
twelve years are these : Considerable increase of production ; the intro- 
duction, in the case of ordinary articles, of the use of cutting machines 
and mechanical processes, often producing the cheapest possible results ,* 
and the emplojmient, in all the trades connected mtli furniture and deco- 
ration, of distinguished artists, whose co-operation has introduced art 
and good taste into the manufacture. 

Class 15, being intimately allied ^ith the preceding, was included in it 
by the jury. Both were fused in one. 

CLASS IG.—FLIXT AXD OTHEE GLASS; STAmED GLASS. 

The articles included in this class were divided into eight sections, and 
involved eight separate processes of manufacture : 1. Crystal glass, with 
basis of lead, for table services, lustres, candelabra, ornamental and fancy 
crystal glass, cut and plain, white and colored, threaded, gilt and painted. 
2. Fine and common table glass; articles for restaurants and cafes; 



62 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

mineral water bottles or sji^lions ; retorts and other eliemical apparatus. 

3. Glass for mirrors and windows 5 moulded glasses for light-liouses and 
paving ; rough glass, channelled and plain, for glazing conservatories. 

4. AYindow glass, plain and colored ; cylinders, globes and shades of vari- 
ous shapes; glass tiles, o. Bottles for wine and mineral waters ; bell 
glasses for gardeners, &c. 6. Flint and croAvn glass for optical purposes. 
7. Enamel in block and in tubes, for jewellers, enamellers, &c. 8. Stained 
glass. 

The finest exhibitions of plates and mirror glass in the Exposition were 
fi-om the establishment of St. Gobain & Chauny. Enormous plates stand- 
ing in the outer circle of the building on each side of the main entrance 
were unobserved by many, for their great perfection of surface and trans- 
parency permitted objects beyond to be seen as if nothing were inter- 
i)0sed. These plates were nearly 18 feet high and 12 feet broad ] another 
plate measured 5.91 metres in height by 3.65 or 21.08 square metres 
of surface. Among the silvered plates there were two of 18 square metres 
and 20 square metres respectively. These firms made exhil)itions not 
only in the French but in the Prussian and Baden sections. The pro- 
ducts comprised mirror plates, glass for flooring, roofing, light-houses, and 
for telescope reflectors. 

The saloons in the French section devoted to flint glass in its divers 
forms, for table services, decanters, pitchers, chandeliers, &c., *S:c., were 
exceedingly briUiant. In one of the saloons, the most striking of the 
large objects were the grand candelabra at each end, rising some 20 feet 
above the floor, with an enormous chandelier between them. These 
splendid objects were displayed by the Joint Stock Comi)any of St. 
Louis, Moselle. The long ranges of tables and supports around these 
chandeliers were covered with other splendid productions of tlie works, 
such as lu-ns, vases, and table services of various patterns. 

The next saloon contained another magnificent display around a colossal 
fountain, made entirely of flint glass and rising some 25 feet above the 
floor, ^T.th the lower basin in massive crystal 10 feet or more in diameter. 
Around this remarkable object were displayed the most exquisite pro- 
ductions in the art of painting, enamelling, and engraving upon glass. 

There was also a fine exhibition of flint glass in the English section, 
from London and Birmingham, particularly of finely engraved glass for 
the table from the firms of Millar & Co., Edinburg, and of Dobron & 
Green, London. These specimens of engraving were recognized by the 
French as even superior to their own. 

There was an exhibition of moulded flint glass in the American depart- 
ment, which, although not attractive in point of quality or color, A\'as 
remarkable as demonstrating the success with which large vessels can 
be moulded in a single piece Avitliout showing any trace of the mould. 

In the process of manufacturing glass, the most important change that 
has taken place of late years is the emplojTuent (for melting the mate- 
rials of which glass is composed) of Mr. Siemen's regeneratiAC gas-furnace 
instead of the ordinary furnace heated by coal. 



FURNITURE AKD OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 63 

From a report presented by Mr. H. Chance to the British Association 
in 18G5, it appears that the weekly prodnce of pLate glass in Great Bri- 
tain is about 100,000 feet. There were seven mannfactnrers of crown and 
sheet glass, three of whom made 75 per cent, of the whole qnantity pro- 
dnced. The number of workmen engaged in these works Avas stated to 
be 2,500,and the quantity of glass produced 17,000 tons. The annual 
produce of flint glass in theTyne and Wear district only^ was estimated at 
£10,000,000. Birmingham produces about £5,000,000, and Stourbridge 
£3,500,000 annually. The make of glass bottles in the Tyne and Wear 
district in tlie year 1862 is stated by Mr. Swinburne to have been about 
1,230,000 dozen. 

GLASS MANUFACTURE IN FRANCE. 

The introduction to this class by the French committee of admission 
gives the following datas ui^on the glass manufacture of France : 

" The products of this class are chiefly manufactm^ed in the departments 
of the ^ord, the Aisne and the Seine, the JMeurthe and the Moselle, 
the Ehone, the Loire and the AUier. The raw materials of the glass 
manufacture principallj^ comprise silica, which, in the shape of sand, 
forms one-half the bulk of flint glass and three-fifths of other kinds of 
glass; oxide of lead, which forms one-third part of the composition of 
crystal glass; carbonate of lime, which represents one-fifth of the com- 
position of common glass ; and sulphate and carbonate of soda, which also 
form a fifth of the composition. With the exception of the lead, these 
materials are aU of home produce; the lead is derived from Belgium, 
England, and Spain. 

The fusion is performed in crucibles, heated by coal or wood; but the 
substitution of the former for the latter fuel is becoming universal. The 
glass manufacture depends principally on the skill of the workmen; 
machinery plays but a secondary part. It is only in the case of plate 
glass that machinery is indispensable. Glass making is carried on in 
houses provided A\i^th furnaces, glass-cutting, dressing and i)olishing shops. 
The workmen generally work by the piece, and there are no middlemen 
employed; the glass houses employ few women, but the number of chil- 
dren emifloyed about the farnaces is nearly equal to that of the men. 
Paris is the chief market for flint, table and plate glass, as well for home 
consumption as for exi)ortation. Window glass is sold to wholesale 
dealers, who retail it to the glaziers. The bottle makers sell to the wine 
producers, bottlers of mineral waters and wholesale dealers. The annual 
production of flint glass has risen since 1802 from 9,000,000 to about 
11,000,000 or 12,000,000 francs. Ordinary table glass is extensively manu- 
factiu'ed in France, and the importance of this trade is at least equal to 
that of flint glass. The production of plate glass is estimated at 350,000 
to 400,000 square metres per annum, and the trade at 12,000,000 francs 
or 13,000,000 francs. The quantity of window glass produced may be 
set down as 5,000,000 to 6,000,000 square metres, of the value of 12,000,000 



64 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

to 15,000,000 francs. The mimber of bottles is estimated at 100,000,000 
to 115,000,000, of the value of 18,000,000 to 20,000,000 francs. The glass 
trade is increasing in all parts of tlie empire -, and it is probable that the 
glass stainers here vill speedily rival the skill of the old masters. Finally, 
tlie value of the Avhole industry reaches about 75,000,000 francs, one- 
third of Avhich represents the salaries of 35,000 men, women and chil- 
dren. Among the improvements introduced into the glass trade since 
the last Exhibition must be mentioned a new method of fusing glass, by 
means of a combination of combustible gases, derived from coal, wood 
or i)eat, with the aid of si)ecial api^aratus. This transformation, which 
promises im^Dortant results, is the most remarkable fact in the glass 
trade." 

The art of glass painting, says Mr. Gambler Parry in his admirable 
resume of the specimens exhibited at the Exi^osition, i>ublished by order 
of the board of the council, can rarely receive justice in a general exhi- 
bition. Its diminished light is injurious to most other objects. It is as 
exclusive in an exhibition as a beech tree in a forest, under which noth- 
ing else will grow. Manufacturers, conscious of this fact, were careful 
not to undergo an ordeal which exposed them to danger. The well-known 
names of Bertini in Italy, Capronnier in Belguim, Aismiiller in Ger- 
many, Gerente at Paris, and Clayton and Bell in England, did not appear 
in the catalogue. The art therefore was facilely represented. But there 
were, notwithstanding, many interesting specimens of excellent work. 
^o comparison could be made between the respective merits of the vari- 
ous countries which exhibited, inasmuch as the specimens were scattered, 
and while on one side of the building the light was good, on the other it 
was necessarily bad. 

A few general remarks on the subject of painted glass will suffice for 
the pm^poses of this article, and we shall borrow their substance from the 
report already referred to. 

In France the system now generally prevails of giving a semi-opaque 
solidity to the glass, by the use of various enamels. If tlie light be 
strong outside, this dimness gives clearness to the design and makes the 
subject more important than the material, which theoretically is correct, 
1)ut which practically, in the case of stained glass, is open to objection. 
In the ejirlier styles of the 13th and early 11th centuries the '' dim religi- 
ous light," of the cathedral or church was produced only by the quality 
of the glass. The taste of the pi^esent day is for pictorial effect only, 
and to produce this opacity is more or less necessary; at all events it fiicili- 
tates the operations of the mere designer. A lustrous reflective glass is 
always preferable for the mellowness which much semi-opaque enamel 
would mar. Tlie genuine gothic feeling and drawing, both in figures 
and ornaments, are much better represented by the English painters on 
glass than by their continental competitors, but their knowledge of draw- 
ing is infinitely less, and is sometimes awkward to absurdity. There is no 
more latal mistake than that any one can draw Avell enough for a gothic 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 65 

window. The continental artists are edncatecl to tlieir profession ; else- 
where it is considered an easy thing to constrnct a window on the old plan. 
The wretched result of consigning this art to inferior hands and minds 
is to discard so many styles and modes of expression, and to bring all 
work to one level of tameness and insipidity. 

The principal exhibitions, in this department were from France, Belgium, 
Prussia, and England. France bore off the palm. The glass pictures of 
Marechal were art gems. Produced by the combination of opaque and 
transparent enamels, they seemed to exhaust the resources of the art. 

CLASS 17.— POECELAm, E AETHEKWAEE, AKD OTHEE FA:N^CY 

POTTEEY. 

'^The productions exhibited in class 17 and designated by the title of 
ceramic, were for domestic use or decoration. They may be divided into 
four sub-classes: Terracotta, earthenware, faience, and porcelain. 1. 
Terra cotta includes all plastic objects, which, by the application of fire, 
are rendered fit for decoration. 2. Earthenware is hard unalterable 
pottery, employed to satisfy the artistic taste of the day and for the 
manufacture of chemical products. 3. Fine and common faience are 
both used equally for domestic purposes and for decoration. Tin-glazed 
faience supplies the decorative arts with indispensable elements. The 
ground lost in the case of common faience has been gained by the finer 
sorts, which now answer perfectly the demands of the public, both as 
regards perfection of form and decorative appearance. 4. ^ard porce- 
lain, characterized by its whiteness, is the pottery ''^ ])ar excellence^'' for 
the service of the table and for domestic use. It is, also, advantageously 
applied in many cases in indoor decoration. Fine porcelain, on account 
of the brilliant colors which it is capable of receiving, is exclusively 
reserved for ornamental purposes. It is not adapted for domestic use on 
account of its fragility. Terra cotta is made almost everywhere. Earthen- 
ware is made in Paris, at Beauvais, and in some parts of IiTormandy. 
Fine faience is made chiefly at Creil, Montereau, Sarreguemines, Choisy 
le Eoi, Gien, and Bordeaux. Artistic faience has its centre in Paris 
and its enwons. 

Steam power tends to replace hand labor to a certain extent in the 
making of faience. The introduction of the methods employed in England 
have transformed this branch of the manufacture. As regards porcelain, 
the softening caused by the high temperature required for the baking 
deforms pieces made in any other way than by hand ; and to the present 
time no mechanical assistance has been found available. However, there 
is good reason to hope that in the shaping and preparation of the mate- 
rial mechanical art may eventually lend its aid. The workmen are almost 
always paid by the piece. In consequence of the tenderness of the pro- 
duction, especially before baking, the men can only work in factories. 
As regards the decorative portions of the work, even when the artistic 
element predominates, the workman is compelled to manipulate the pot- 

5 TIE 



66 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION, 

tery. Ko less tlian 1,362 men and 458 women are employed in Paris in 
the decoration of china alone. The greater portion of the potteries have 
agencies or depots at Paris or send their wares to the wholesale dealers 
there for sale. The latter often take the decorative portion into their 
own hands and eqnalize the productions of the various provinces by 
making one supply the deficiency of another. Paris is, therefore, the 
grand centre of the porcelain and faience trade. Limoges, which comes 
next, sends its ware to all parts of the empire by the aid of travellers 
and agents. Artistic ware, however, finds an almost exclusive market in 
Paris. The treaty of commerce has made little change in the importa- 
tions. The home production has greatly augmented ; the annual value 
of fine faience is estimated at 10,000,000 francs, and that of porcelain at 
20,000,000 francs. 

The improvements realized during the last 12 years are as follows : 
1. The increasing use of terra cotta in the decoration of public and pri- 
vate edifices. 2. The almost complete renewing of the plant of the 
faience potteries, so that good organization, from being an exception, has 
become the rule. 3. The substitution of coal for wood in the baking of 
porcelain and the consequent reduction in the cost of the process. 4. 
The improvement introduced in the art of decoration through the chromo- 
lithographic process." Extract from the translation of the report of 
Messrs. Salvetat and Dommartin, members of the committee of admission of 
class 17. 

The word ''fiiience" is of recent origin, and its emx)loyment indicates 
an elegant extension of the business which was formerly carried on under 
the vulgar name of pottery. A fine pot is no longer a piece of delf, but 
a specimen of faience, l^o business has grown more rapidly and satis- 
factorily than that represented in class 17. Beyond all doubts, pottery 
is the most ancient of arts. Drinking cups, hardened in the sun of the 
tropics, were, perhaps, the first utensils fashioned by man. From this 
first step, long since forgotten in the series of uncounted ages, the art 
of the potter has maintained its ground as the most imijortant in the 
series of human economy. 

Pottery is the most fragile and at the same time, from its very nature, 
the most durable of the works of man. In the term are included all 
kinds of earthenware from the rude jar and brick of the Sakkara p^Tamid 
to the porcelain of China, and the '' j96ite tendre^^ of Sevres. It is, how- 
ever, in the modern application of earthenware that the present age 
excels. This divides itself into two imi)ortant groups. The first com- 
l)rises aU i^ottery composed of a non- vitrified body, such as terra cotta 
and fine and coarse eartheuAvare. This is the lower order. To the second 
belongs all pottery composed of a vitrified body, such as stoneware and 
porcelain. This is the higher order. Each of these groups is capable 
of being subdivided into a very great number of different kinds. Pro- 
ceeding, then, from the simple to the more complex, we find, first, terra 
cotta, which is intended to serve as a substitute for stone in architectural 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 67 

decoration. When an ornament has to be repeated many times, terra 
cotta has the advantage of cheapness over stone, and, if well prepared, 
possesses greater durability. Stone that can be easily worked by the 
chisel and at the same time resist, for centuries, the changes of climate, 
is rare and difiicult to obtain. The resistance of terra cotta, on the con- 
trary, is well known. A glance at that of the ancients is suffilcient to 
prove that after several thousand years it remains unchanged. In Greece 
the use of terra cotta was general. The Eomans employed it in great 
profusion, and it descended naturally to the Italians. The emx)loyment 
of terra cotta in England has revealed a remarkable fact. '^ It does not,'' 
says Mr. Arnona, '' blacken in the atmosphere as readily as stone and 
can be much more easily cleaned." It is in Italy, France, Prussia, and 
Belgium that it is most generally used. The best example in the Exposi- 
tion was the fragment of a fa§ade exhibited in the garden near the 
Italian section by Mr. Boni, of the national manufactory at Milan. This 
specimen, very elaborate, in which the artist endeavored to show all the 
resources that could be made available in this material for external decora- 
tion, was in the form of a gateway, the framework of which was orna- 
mented and decorated with figures and the i^anels elaborated in the style 
of the Eenaissance. It was regarded as the finest piece in the collection, 
although the Prussian and English work in terra cotta was very admirable. 
For i)ractical x)urposes the latter specimens were, perhai)s, the best. We 
noticed, x)articularly, magnificent specimens of glazed drain-pix)es, rang- 
ing from ten to thirty inches in diameter and sounding to the touch Like 
a tube of metal. They were made of coarse stoneware, a material harder 
than common earthenware and glazed. There are three kinds of glazes 
commonly used, the bases of which are chloride of sodium (common salt) 
and salts of lead and tin 5 the last for majolica and other light ware in 
various proportions and with various adjuncts. Salt only is used in 
glazing the ordinary drain-pii^es. 

This hard brown stoneware is also used in forming the vessels used in 
many of the arts. Among other things were a large distilling retort 
with a well constructed worm, a barrel the size of a half-hogshead, and 
some gigantic jars, besides retorts and filters of all shapes and sizes. 
Machmery is now largely used in the preparation of this descrix)tion of 
pottery. It kneads the clay and moulds it into shape, and it is, thanks 
to the facilities thus obtained, that the economic api)lication of hard 
earthenware has received such extension. 

Bricks and terra cotta are the same form of pottery, differing only in 
treatment. ISTumerous specimens of the hollow or perforated bricks were 
exhibited. These, although invented twenty years ago, have only recently 
come into general use. They have many advantages over the solid brick ; 
not the least of which is their lightness. They hold the mortar with 
great tenacity, and, when properly used, make drier, warmer, and 
healthier houses. 

In a higher order of faience the specimens were innumerable, and here 



68 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

it may be proper to give the latest definition of the word faience. Any 
chiy, AYhich after having passed through the fire, preserves a certain 
amount of porosity, and which is then covered with a glaze, takes the 
name of faience. Wlien composed of a common body and covered with 
transparent and colored glazes, it is a faience of the same description as 
that of Palisse. If it is made of common clay, but coated with an opaque 
enamel, it is the Italian, the delft, or the old French faience, according 
to the degree of opacity in the enamel. Again, if clays of different 
colors are worked some upon the other, or some into the other, it becomes 
similar to the old ware of Perugia or that of Yoiron, known as Henry II 
ware. If the clay contains sands and is covered with a transparent and 
uncolored glaze, it is the style known as the Persian ware ; then, again, 
if the clay or the body is of a fine description, white and covered with 
a transparent uncolored glaze, it is the cream-colored ware or the ordi- 
nary earthenware. Those processes are often combined together, some- 
times on the same piece. 

Pottery that is not porous is of a vitreous texture — that is to saj, porce- 
lain biscuit and porcelain itself. There is no natural clay or mixture 
of clays which, being submitted to the action of fire, does not lose its 
porous nature, and acquire a degree of vitrification, which for the same 
clay will be in proportion to the heat applied. All clays have in them a 
natural flux. In the inferior sort this is lime and the metallic oxides — 
oxide of iron, chiefly ; in the superior sort, which is the clay arising from 
the decomposition of feldspar and granite, it is a very small amount of 
potash or soda. The vitrification known can be arrested by mechanical 
means. In this process, requiring great experience and skill, the English 
houses excel. 

Porcelain itself is the perfection of the potter's art. There are two 
kinds : hard — the true porcelain — the eldest, which is that of the Chinese 
and the Japanese, of very simple composition j and soft porcelain, an 
invention of the last century, in which transi)arency — the characteristic 
of porcelain — is obtained by artificial means. 

The principal centres Avhere hard j)orcelain is manufactured are China, 
Japan, Germany, and France. The manufacture of soft porcelain is 
even more limited, for it is the most difficidt to produce of all potterj^ 
For many years it was confined almost exclusively to the imi)erial factory 
at Sevres. In 1804, however, the manufacture of soft paste ceased there. 
Investigations into the nature of hard porcelain had never been discon- 
tinued. The secret of the manufacture was known at the royal manu- 
factory of Saxony, but every precaution was taken against its being 
di\^dged. The royal manufactory of France, founded at Yincennes in 
1745, and removed to Sevres in 1753, had always piu^sued its researches, 
and the first success dates in 1768. From 1753 to 1768, therefore — a 
period of 15 years — soft porcelain was exclusively produced at Sevres. 
Starting from 1762, the two were produced together, Avitli a gentle pref- 
erence to one or the other, according to the taste of the directors for the 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS, 69 

time being. The Frencli Eevolntion and the emigTation of the nobility, 
which followed, struck a severe blow at a manufacture which was con- 
ducted only for the most delicate tastes. It ceased to be appreciated, 
and by degrees attention was diverted from a complicated and costly 
manuf^icture to one comparatively easy, capable of producing larger 
prices, and which offered to the artist painter the advantage of being 
able to estimate, during the execution of his work, the real value of the 
tints he employed. Hard porcelain thus became the national pottery — 
a source of wealth to many departments, and an important article of 
exi^ortation. Since 1847, however, the old ^^a^e tendre has been again 
l^roduced at Se^T^es. 

Specimens of every kind of porcelain were exhibited in the Sevres 
court. The display in every respect was superb, and worthy of a gov- 
ernment which, without regard to cost, has established a school of pot- 
tery entirely without any equal. 

There were two exhibitors in this class from the United States. 

CLASS 18.— CARPETS, TAPESTRY, AND FURNITURE STUFFS. 

The productions included in this class were: 1. Silk and satin damask; 
2. Eeps and table-covers; 3. Yelvet, in goat's hair, wool, and cotton; 

4. WooUen, damask, poplin, Algerian stuffs, and horse-hair fabrics; 

5. Chintz, cretonne, textile fabric, and printed cloth; 6. Carpets and 
tapestry; 7. Embroidered and figured muslin; 8. Tick for fiu'niture, 
blinds, and bedding. 

In this class there were about 60 exhibitors in the French section; in 
the Prussian, 28; Great Britain, 39; United States, 2; but in the section 
of Turkey there were no less than 260, nearly aU, however, of carpets ; 
Algeria also contributed a great number of carpets and mats, but gen- 
erally of small size. 

The display was also exceedingly good in the Persian and Russian sec- 
tions. The coarser descrii^tion of Persian carpets were himg side by side 
with the ribbed rug woven in Koordish tents, and there were beautiful 
specimens of both. In color, precision of outline, and beauty of texture, 
some of the Persian specimens seemed more like shawls than carpets. 
Such work is generally intended for the mosques ; men never tread on 
them but barefooted. 

European cari)ets are sufficiently well known. Among the French, 
those of the savonnerie, as a short-pile carpet, are still unequalled, and 
in the fiu^niture department were some very creditable imitations of this 
manufacture, which has been abandoned. Of long-piled carpets there 
was a large display, but none to equal those of the imi)erial factory of 
the Gobelins. In the French moquettes (velvet pile) there were many 
beautiful imitations of Smyrna and other ornamental cari^ets. 

Carpets are comparatively of modern introduction in private houses 
in France ; they were reserved for the mansions of the wealthy, small 



70 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

rugs or mats laid before the seats being tlie only provision made to pre- 
serve tlie feet from the cold of the waxed oak or brick floors. Carpets 
are now in very general nse, but they are much more exi)ensive than in 
England. 

In the English section there was a fair show of Brussels and velvet 
piles, chiefly from Kidderminster. 

There was a very remarkable carpet in the Austrian section. It was 
designed for gas-hght, being intended for the saloon of the Emperor's 
box at the new opera-house. The peculiarity of coloring was not seen 
to advantage under the softer influence of daylight. The pile was rather 
long, like that of Sm;^Tna carpets, but the texture was close, and parts 
of the design were exceedingly dehcate. 

PEODUCTION IN FRANCE. 

^* In France the principal centres of production are : For group 1, Lyons 
and Toiu^Sj 2, Paris and Mmes; 3, Amiens; 4, Eoubaix, Courcoing, 
Midhouse, and Paris; 5, Mulhouse, Eouen, Claye, (Seine and Marne,) and 
Paris j 6, Aubusson, Amiens, Abbeville, Beauvais, Mmes, and Courcoing ; 
7, Tarare and St. Quentin; 8, Lille and Flers. The imperial manufac- 
tories of Gobelins and Beauvais produce the beautiful tapestry which is 
only used for the imi)erial palaces. That which is sold in the trade is 
made at Aubusson. 

The raw materials used in the manufacture of fabrics for upholstery 
are very numerous. The organzines of France and Piedmont, the wefts 
of China and Japan, are used in the manufactures of the silk fabrics. 
The price of these materials has much increased during the last few 
years; it is now at 120 francs to 130 francs for the warp, and 110 francs 
to 120 francs for the weft. The French silk is the dearest and the most 
esteemed. The manufacture of reps and table-cloths is composed of 
French wool, valued at 10 to 15 francs the kilogram, and floss silk, 
worth 40 to 60 francs, which is chiefly derived from Switzerland. Utrecht 
velvet is made of goat's hair, spun in England, and sold at from 9 to 30 
francs the kilogram, according to its purity. Horse-hair fabrics are woven 
of materials of French origin ; that which comes from Buenos Ayres is 
much more expensive, costing from 16 to 30 francs. Woollen damasks 
are woven with wool coming from the north of France; the weft is worth 
from 7 to 8 francs the kilogram, the war^) from 9 to 10 francs. For the 
mixed silk fabrics they use warp at a price of 50 to 60 francs the kilo- 
gram. The Algerian fabrics are comi)Osed of cotton warps and woollen 
wefts, worth 5 to 6 francs the kilogram. The price of cotton fabrics, 
such as calico and cretonne, used for making prints and chintzes, is 
from 50 centimes to 150 centimes per metre. These fabrics are woven 
in Alsace and Eouen. The cloth used in upholstery is manufactured at 
Mouy; the widest, used for table-co^^ers, is worth, in its rough state, 3 
francs the metre, and that used for covering fiu^niture about 8 francs the 
metre. The printing of the calico, cretonne, and textile fabric is per 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS 71 

formed principally at Miillionse, Eouen, and Claye ; tlie clotli is printed 
in Paris. The carpet maniifactiu'e employs Engiisli and French wool j 
the minimum price for the ordinary qualities is 8 francs the kilogram. 
Tapestry is made of unmixed English wool, which costs, without dye- 
ing, from 12 to 15 francs the kilogram. The embroidered cotton fabrics 
come from Tarare and its neighborhood, the figured mushns from St. 
Quentin. The flax yarn for tick is spun at Lille. The figured fabrics 
used in upholstery are woven in the Jacquard machine -, the plain fabrics 
are partly woven in power looms j the embroidery and tapestry is pro- 
duced by hand, but they are beginning now to manufactiu^e carpets by 
machinery; the printing is accomi^lished by cylinders or plates. 

The cost of manufacture amounts to 10 or 15 per cent, of the value of 
the common article, to 20 or 25 per cent, in that of the better fabrics, 
and to 30 or 40 per cent, of that of the most ex]3ensive articles. The 
average amount of general exi3enses is 10 per cent, of the value of the 
production, without counting the cost of the designs and the inventions, 
which is often very considerable. Plain fabrics, at least those which are 
worked by hand, are manufactured in the homes of the workmen, in 
the neighborhood of the principal manufacturing centres ; for instance, 
Utrecht velvets are woven in the environs of Amiens, by workmen who 
also cultivate the ground. Figured and fancy fabrics are usually manu- 
factiu'ed in large workshops. In the upholstery trade only about 30 x)er 
cent, of the hands em^^loyed are women. 

Paris is the principal market for all kinds of fabrics for upholstery : 
those manufactiu^ers who have no depots in Paris have always an agent 
of some kind. Many manufacturers only work for one or two Parisian 
wholesale houses, and refuse all other business; and this association 
between the manufacturer and the Parisian salesman results from the 
absolute necessity of dividing, and thereby diminishing, the risks of 
manufacture (often considerable) in the production of those fancy articles, 
of which the consumption is relatively small and variable. The manu- 
facturers of hand-made tapestry only work to order, for a new i)attern 
has to be made for almost every buyer. Those who make cari)ets by 
machinery prepare their designs beforehand of the different sizes accepted 
in the trade, so as to always have a large assortment on hand. The 
manufacture of fabrics for upholstering is one of those for which France 
is most justly celebrated; the tapestry of the imperial manufactories of 
Gobehns and Beauvais is without a rival. The production of these 
fiibrics is estimated at about 60,000,000. The exportation of carpets 
and tapestry is now very large. French woollen manufactures bear com- 
parison with those of the best foreign markets, and their silk fabrics are 
unrivaUed. 

The committee of admission points out, among the principal imi^rove- 
ments introduced since 1855: '' firstly, the great extension of steam 
machinery; secondly, the introduction of a machine with eight and ten 



72 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

rollers, printing fabrics with that exquisite perfection of coloring wMch 
formerly could only be produced by band." — From the introduction to 
class 18 in the official catalogue. 

CLASS 19.— PAPER-HANGINGS. 

The products exhibited in class 19 comprise: 1. Paper-hanging 5 2. 
Painted or printed blinds. 

Paper-hangings are principally made in Paris, and particularly in the 
faubourg St. Antoine, where are collected about 130 large factories, in 
which are employed 4,500 workmen, and whose jDroduce per annum 
amounts to about 18,000,000 francs in value. There are also some works 
at Bixheim, Lyons, Metz, Caen, Toulouse, Epinal, and Mans. The raw 
materials employed in the production of paper-hangings, that is to say, 
the papers, the colors, the gelatine, &c., are noAV all of French origin. 
The designs for the decorations are always produced by French artists; 
the cuttings of the blocks and rollers have the same origin; and the 
machinery is constructed in our workshops. The materials, in the pro- 
duction of which foreigners for a long time held the monopoly — ultra- 
marine and German gold, for example — are now all made in the French 
manufactories. The introduction of machinery into the French paper- 
hanging trade does not date more than 30 years back. Limited first to 
the production of striped papers of a single color, machine working was 
rapidly improved as to enable it to produce designs in many colors. In 
the year 1851, the number of machines employed by the paper-hanging 
manufacturers of France scarcely amounted to 20 ; they number more 
than 100 at the i)resent moment. Each machine produces, on an aver- 
age, 25 times as much as a hand printer; still, the introduction of 
mechanical means has not had the effect of diminishing the number of 
workmen in the same proportion. The number of slabs for hand printing 
has only fallen from 900 to 700 since 1851. It is to the increase in the 
trade itself that this result is to be attributed. If the statistics of the 
last 15 years be compared, we find that the amount of trade in 1865 was 
about 20,000,000 francs, or double that of 1850. The workmen nearly all 
work by the piece, and in shops where rarely less than 10 or more than 
100 persons are employed, one-third of these consist of boys of less than 
IG years of age ; there are few women employed in the trade. There is 
no special market for paper-hanging, the trade being always carried on 
by means of commercial travellers and samples. The exportation of 
French i)aper-hangings, after having increased rapidly until the year 18G0, 
was suddenly arrested at the time of the treaty of commerce ; but it has 
risen again to the amount of the best years. In 1855 it was 4,071,910 
francs; in 1857 it had risen to 5,948,331 francs; and finally, having Mien 
to 3,407,075 francs in 1861, it rose again to 5,085,000 francs, or nearly to 
tlie level of 1857 ; but the average price of paper-hanging fell in the same 
period from tAVO francs sixty centimes to two francs twenty centimes the 
kilogram. From 1863 to the present day the imports have remained 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 73 

steadily at about 450,000; tliey are almost exclusively from Eugland. 
The committee of admissiou may point out, among the improvements 
which have taken place in the trade: 1. The development of machine 
printing, and the daily improvements of the process. At first restricted 
to papers \Yith two or three colors, it is now applied to the production of 
papers and borders with from 15 to 20 colors. 2. The recent introduc- 
tion and immediate adoption of machines for strengthening or deepening 
colors. 3. The invention of some special kinds of paper-hangings, such 
as stamped, velvet, and gilt imitation of leather, of silk damask, &c. ; 
the api)lication of some new colors, such as the anilines and Guignet- 
green, in i)lace of arsenical green, &e. 

PAINTED OR PRINTED BLINDS. 

The use of painted or printed blinds is much less general in France 
than in some other countries, Sweden and Germany for instance. They 
are often produced by artists working on their own account, and seldom 
attain the position of manufacturer. I^ot is their j)roduction confined to 
any particular district or locality 5 they are produced in small workshops 
in nearly all great towns. There are about 30 of these in Paris, employ- 
ing from 100 to 150 artists and workmen, and doing business to the 
extent of about 700,000 francs annually. One-fifth of the production is 
for exportation. The blinds made in France are for the most part 
painted by handj block-printing is sometimes used, but in general only 
Avhen the design employed is regTdar and geometrical. There has been 
no i^rogress in the trade worth mentioning during the last 12 years ; the 
processes remain the same, but the quantity produced is notably increased. 
In place of the unsightly blinds, overcharged with pretentious designs, 
and loaded with a mass of heavy opaque colors, we now see elegant com- 
positions, produced in fine transparent colors, and worthy to take part in 
house decoration. 

Paper-hangings had their origin in the desire to produce a material for 
the decoration of walls which should be less expensive than tapestry. At 
their first invention they were so expensive that they were literally hung 
on the walls, not pasted on them. They were carefolly treasiu-ed, and 
were moved from house to house like other goods of the proprietor. They 
were first made at Eouen, in the early part of the sixteenth century. 
The earliest specimens resemble the flock-paper of the present day. They 
were imitations of tapestry, made by painting a pattern in adhesive oils 
and powdering it over with the colored wool obtained from the dressing 
of cloths. The next step seems to have been in marbled papers, in many 
of which gold and silver Avere introduced. It was not till the latter part 
of the eighteenth century that the use of chintzes suggested the applica- 
tion of printing to this manufacture. Of course, like the original chintz- 
printing, as it is still practiced in India and Persia, the design was pro- 
duced by a number of engraved blocks, each charged with one color. 
Mechanism has long since abohshed this tedious process. The paper, no 



74 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

longer in small sheets, but in an endless roll, passes under a succession 
of engraved cylinders so accurately combined tliat, when it issues from 
the press on the other side, it is completely and accurately colored. 
France, England, and Germany contend for the superiority m this branch 
of manufacture, and it is not certain that either nation maintains the 
superiority, although each has its own x)eculiar character to maintain. 
The French common papers surpass those of any other country in 
elegance, and, perhaps, also in cheapness. There were some papers with 
a white pattern on a gray ground, which could be bought at the rate of 
eight yards and a half for three cents 5 brown, blue, and white upon grey, 
a combination of three colors, cost four cents. These were for modest 
purposes, but the i)apers in imitation of Cordovan leather, gorgeously 
colored and gilt, were costly objects of luxury. Several of the French 
flock papers were excellent imitations of velvet, cloth, and reps. 

Many of the English hand-made papers were admirable in execution 
and exceedingly rich, although generally inferior in design. Mr. Owen 
Jones, the famous mediaeval decorator, exhibited a curious design in the 
way of X)aper-hanging. It looked like the border of one of his favorite 
mediaeval manuscripts surrounding a page of the blue sky, powdered with 
a microscopic gold pattern. 

The German display was not regarded as a satisfactory one. 

CLASS 20.— CUTLERY. 

Cutlery, properly so called, exhibited in this class may be di^dlded into 
several descriptions : 1. Table cutlery, which includes knives and forks, 
with blades of the i)recious metals, commonly known by the appellation 
of small table plate ; 2. Pocket cutlery, including spring knives of all 
sorts, certain huntsmen's knives and penknives; 3. Cutlery with fixed 
blades, such as hunting knives, poignards, and cutting tools of various 
kinds for business i)uri)oses 5 4. Scissors and shears of all kinds, includ- 
ing gardener's shears, &c. -, 5. Razors of every kind. 

The familiar articles in this class were represented by GO French and 
94 foreign exhibitors. Of late years the French have made vast progress 
in the difficult art of manufacturing cutlery. England has enjoyed for 
years the reputation of excelling in this industry, and it is recorded that 
at the World's Fair in London, 1851, there was but a single exhibitor of 
cutlery from France. Of late years a vast stride has been taken in this 
business, not only by France, but by the German States and Belgium. 
A large proportion of the cheap cutlery which is called English has never 
crossed the channel, but is native and of continental production. 

The English cutlery exhibition was a fine one. Sheffield was still able 
to maintain her own. The forms of table cutlery have gained in light- 
ness and elegance; the razors are as keen as ever, and the scissors were 
very pretty, without having yet attained to the quaint ornithological 
forms of the French. Among the cimosities was a knife containing 28 
blades, from Solingen, and any quantity of travelling knives from all 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS- 75 

parts of tlie Tvoiicl. In tlie six exhibitions of England were to be fonnd 
clasi)-kniYes, in the handles of which means had been fonnd to place a 
spoon, a fork, a corkscrew, a -pair of scissors, a saw, a file for the nails, 
a gimlet, a bodldn, a cntting pnnch, and fonr or five other objects, the 
nse of which it is difficult to devise. It must be dreadful to own such a 
knife. 

FRENCH CUTLERY. 

The following, from the translation of the official catalogue, gives some 
interesting facts regarding the manufactiu^e in France : 

'' There are four principal centres of cutlery manufacture in France: 1. 
The Puits de Dome, represented by the town of Thiers, which is by far 
the most important as regards the amount of business. The number of 
pieces of cutlery produced annually in the factories of the Puits de 
Dome amount to 48,000,000. This enormous i)roduction consists exclu- 
sively of cheap articles. 2. The Haute Marne, represented by the town 
of Nogent, produces cutlery of all qualities. It is from ISTogent especi- 
ally that the Paris cutlers obtain the blades for their table knives. The 
trade is considerable. 3. Paris, whose manufacture of articles of cutlery 
is far more interesting as regards the quality than the quantity of its 
productions j fine articles of all kinds are made at Paris, but principally 
table knives and razors. Lastly, Chatellerault, in the department of 
Vienna, which i^roduces principally table knives and ordinary razors. 
The raw materials used in the cutlery trade are numerous j as iron, steel, 
gold and silver, employed for the blades and the ornaments j ivory, 
mother-of-pearl, ebony, bone, and many sorts of hard wood and horn, 
are used for the handles. English cast steel forms about one-half of the 
material for the manufacture of Parisian cutlery, and the cast steel of St. 
Etienne supi3lies the remainder. For ordinary cutlery, the cast steel of 
St. Etienne, the ordinary steel of Rives, (Isere), and the iron of Berry, 
are aU em^^loyed. The principle of the division of labor is generally 
carried out in the cutlery trade in a very complete manner. StiU manual 
labor i)redominates in this branch of industry, as the workmen only 
make one sort of article, and that always the same. He buys his raw 
material and finishes the article himself. There are, however, some 
important manufactories, where a certain number of mechanical tools 
are employed, such as stami)ing and cutting presses. In the centres of 
the great cutlery districts the workmen work at home, with apprentices, 
living in the surrounding villages. In Paris, however, and in a limited 
number of large establishments, the jnen work at the shops. There are 
but few women emploj^ed in the cutlery trade. The great centre of sale 
is in Paris ; the manufacturers of Thiers, IsTogent, and Chatellerault have 
depots in Paris and many other towns. Middlemen, who travel through 
the provinces to supply the retail houses, obtain their goods at these 
depots. The depots also supply the merchants for the export trade and 
the Paris cutlers. The value of the French cutlery trade amoimts to 



76 * PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

about 20,000,000 francs 5 and by far the larger part of tlie productions of 
this trade is for liome consumi^tion. Thiers and its environs produced 
about 12,000,000 francs' worth of cutlery; the department of the Haute 
Marne about 4,000,000 francs' worth; Paris, 2,000,000, and Chatellerault 
about 1,000,000 francs' worth. A certain descrii)tion of knives, called 
^^Eustache," which formerly were in very great demand on account of 
their low price, are made at St. Etienne and at ^ontron, in the Dordogne. 
The exports amount to about one-quarter of the whole production. 
These knives are sold at x)resent at from 35 cents to 85 cents (3JcZ. to S^d.) 
per dozen. A certain amount of progTess has been made in the cutlery 
trade since the year 1855 ; there has been a constant improvement in the 
machine tools which have been ax)plied to the production of very many 
kinds of articles; and in spite of the very decided increase in the price 
of most of the raw materials employed, and also of the advance of 
wages, the amount of the production has undergone little change. 

CLASS 21.— GOLD AND SILVER PLATE. 

This class comprises: 1. Artistic goldsmiths' work; 2. The major part 
of small table plate in gold, silver, and in alloyed metals, silvered or gilt 
by electro-chemical process; 3. Bronze ornaments for the tables and des- 
sert services; 4. Plated ware; 5. Gold, silver and church plate; 6. Gold, 
silver and copper enameled ware. The goldsmith's trade is almost 
entirely concentrated in Paris, but there are some makers of church 
plate at Lyons. Fine silver is worth on an average 220 francs the kilo- 
gTam. The law allows the employment of two different standards of 
alloy for solid plate, but the first of these is almost exclusively employed. 
This is worth 212 francs 62 centimes, while the second is worth only 180 
francs the kilogram. Silver and gold are applied by the electro- 
chemical process upon articles made either of brass or of white metal, 
(maillechort,) which is brass, with the addition of nickel. The prices of 
the metals which enter into the manufacture of these alloys are as fol- 
lows: Copper, 200 to 300 fr\ancs the 100 kilograms; zinc, 75 to 80 
fr-ancs ; nickel, 12 francs to 13 fr^ancs. The manufacture of plated ware is 
rapidly disappearing. The operations which contribute to the produc- 
tion of goldsmiths' work are very numerous. The metallic aUoys are 
melted in crucibles; they are afterwards cast in moulds of beaten earth 
and sand. When taken fr^om the mould the articles pass into the hands 
of the chaser. The chaser's work is, however, economically replaced in 
the case of stamped work by presses and steel dies. By means of these 
processes are produced table ornaments, certain objects of art, and vari- 
ous pieces of goldsmith's work, which are also made by means of the 
latter, the hammer and stamping. Mounting consists in uniting the 
various parts of a work together. This is done by means of soldering, 
and also of screws and nuts. Spoons and forks are made by means of 
rollers, on which the forms of tlie articles are engraved. The other pro- 
cesses are hand engravhig and biting in with acid, enameUing, engine 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 77 

turning and i)olisliing witli special latlies; and, lastly, finisMng*, which 
includes rouge polishing and burnishing with steel, agate, and other 
tools. Goldsmiths' work is done almost exclusively either in large shops 
or at the houses of master workmen, employing a certain number of 
assistants and apprentices 5 very few work entirely alone. The proi)or- 
tion of men to women employed in the business is four to one. The 
number of females engaged has, however, increased since the introduc- 
tion of electro-plated work, the polishing of which is entirely performed 
by them. The average rate of wages in Paris is 5 francs a day for men 
and 2 francs (40 cents) for women. The manufacturers generally sell 
their productions either to retail dealers or to merchants and agents for 
exportation. The annual value of productions, including plated ware, 
is 43,000,000 francs, of which only about 4,000,000 francs' worth are 
exported. — Translation of the introduction of Faul Cliristofie^ member of 
the committee of admission of class 21. 

The oldest establishment in France, the well-knowTi house of Odiot, 
made a large display. There was nothing, however, that claimed the 
merit of novelty, unless it were the three massive i:>ieces of plate which 
were intended in some way to celebrate the fame of the Creusot Iron Works. 
These were remarkable for the introduction of figures in the ordinary arti- 
san's costume of the day, smiths resting from their toils with their imple- 
ments in their hands, and cog-wheels, piston rods, and cranks filling up the 
details of the foreground. The idea was an innovation, and the difficul- 
ties to be overcome were no doubt great. But in these matters the effect 
is all that need be judged, and this did not give general satisfaction. 

The collection exhibited by the brothers Fanniere, besides its high 
order of artistic merit, had the extremely rare peculiarity of being the 
work of the hands of the exhibitors themselves. The brothers Fanniere, 
Ijupils of Yechte, from being art workmen in the employ of others, have 
risen by their talent and industry to an independent commercial estab- 
lishment, and in this exhibition carried off the first gold medal awarded 
to silver plate. Their specialite is a very high perfection of repousse 
sculpture. Two shields, one in iron and the other in steel, were the most 
remarkable of their productions. The amount of relief was considered 
greater than had ever before been attained in the material, and as steel 
is not a tractable metal, it was deserving of attention, not only for 
its gTcat artistic merit, but as defining the hmit within which bold 
embossing, almost amounting to alto-relievo, retains its genuinely metallic 
character. With silver it is different. If it be burst by forcing it into 
a relief beyond its powers of exi)ansion, it may be patched up by solder- 
ing in new pieces neatly enough to escape observation, unless the back 
be carefully examined, and even the back may be so cleaned up by files 
and other imxdements as to show no seam. 

The largest collection was by Mr. Christofle, whose inumerable stores 
all over Paris are easily recognized by the invariable sign of windows 
fiUed with table spoons tossed into confusion with a prodigal hand. The 



78 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

house is one of tlie largest in the workl, employs an enormous number 
of workmen, and manufactures everything, from the commonest articles 
of plated ware to the most expensive art productions for the table. The 
mass of material put on show was of a very heterogeneous character. 

A collection of great artistic value and beauty was also exhibited by 
Mr. Le Pec, whose specialty is enamelling on a solid gold ground — gold 
being the only metal that can withstand the firing necessary for the 
superimposed work which Mr. Le Pec employs. When a vase has been 
thoroughly finished by this elaborate process it looks more like the pro- 
duction of the potter than the goldsmith. 

The German collection by Wagner, the court silversmith of Berlin, was 
well worthy of examination. He exhibited two important works — 
bucklers— one given to the Prince Eoyal on his marriage, the other to 
Francis the Second of IsTaples, in 1864, in memory of the siege of Gaeta. 
Both were examples of the art skill for which the house is renowned. 

Eussia had a sui^erb collection of thoroughly characteristic silver ware, 
mixed with occasional imitations of Arabic and Persian art. The Mus- 
covite style is a combination of the various contrasts of whitened silver, 
oxydized silver, both obtained by the aid of acids, and gilding. The 
designs are striking, and, in not a few, inscriptions in the Eussian alphabet, 
either pierced or engraved, are used with quaint effect. The hammered 
and chased silver work was regarded as the best in the class. 

In the English section there were three names that challenged attention, 
Hancock, Hunt & Eoskell, and Elkington, the English Christofle, but 
Elkington only exhibited silver ware. The collection was exceedin giy fine. 
A silver swan exhibited in one of these cases occasioned a good deal of 
amusement, and was certainly one of the most ingenious pieces of mechan- 
ism in the building. It was of life size, and was gracefuUy x)oised on a 
basin of artificial water represented by revolving spirals of crystal. In 
this water a shoal of artificial fish were seen swimming. The swan moves 
the feathers of its neck gracefully, takes a proud and dignified survey of 
the situation, perceives the fish, seizes one in its bill, and then raises its 
neck and straightens it so that the fish disappears. Satisfied with this 
frugal but somewhat indigestible repast, the automaton curls its neck 
under its wings and goes to sleep. The Avhole is effected by means of 
clockwork machinery, which is said to be old, the i)resent exhibitor only 
having refitted it. 

In this class there were but two American exhibitors. A small col- 
lection of chased silver ware was forwarded by Messrs. Tiffany & Co., of 
E'ew York, which was good enough of its kind, but inadequate to the 
occasion. Two pretty models of steamboats in precious metals were 
much admired. They were from the same house. A collection of Con- 
necticut table ware was shown and used in the American restaurant. 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 79 

CLASS 22.— BRONZES AND OTHER ARTISTIC CASTINGS AND 

REPOUSSE WORK. . 

The alloy forming wliat is called imitation bronze consists of tin, 
regulns of antimony, and lead. Tlie productions of this alloy are remark- 
able for sharpness j but it is dear and almost always wanting in solidity. 
At the x>resent day it may be almost absolutely declared that the manu- 
facturers have given up the use of this alloy in favor of pure zinc, and 
l)articidarly that prepared sort known as the Yieille Montague zinc. Zinc, 
then, remains nearly the only metal in use, and when covered with a 
coating of copper by the electro process produces a good imitation of 
bronze. This galvano plating, however, entails considerable exi^ensej 
and in order to i^roduce very cheaj) articles certain establishments use a 
mere varnish, either of the color of bronze or gold. In some shops steam 
X^ower is employed, but this cannot in any case supersede manual labor. 
AH that it does is to aid the workman by saving him a considerable 
amount of fatigue, especially in the tm^ning shop. The apparatus included 
in class 22 employ about 11,000 workmen, some of whom are i^aid by 
the day and others by the piece ; the wages of the former range from four 
francs fifty centimes to eight francs a day. There are, however, many 
instances of men earning much higher wages. Piece work is of course 
affected by the laws of supply and demand, and is a matter of special 
arrangement. About 4,000 men work at home or with the designers, the 
others are employed in large shops, the day's work consisting of 10 hours. 

The annual value of the productions of the trade reaches about 
70,000,000 francs, nearly £3,000,000 sterling. In 1863 the export amounted 
to 44,000,000 francs, but it feU to 40,000,000 francs in 1864, and 34,000,000 
in 1865. The returns for 1866 are not yet made, and we cannot, therefore, 
give exact figures, but, in all probability^, there is still a fui^ther falling off. 
This diminution in the exports is attributable to the efforts made in 
England, Belgium, Germany, and even Russia, to establish works for 
the production of bronze, zinc, and iron castings. The^ nations are 
making gTeat efforts to develop these valuable manufactures in order to 
compete with French producers, not only in the markets of these nations 
themselves, but also in the general trade. 

The importation of manufactured articles is valued, at the above- 
named periods, at 480,000 francs, 545,000 francs, and 495,000 francs, 
di\dded between England, Belgium, and, since 1864, Germany. 

The improvements to be noted are those which have arisen out of ele- 
vation of taste and knowledge of art, w^hich are progressing daily, rather 
than to any improvements in the tools, &c., which have remained 
unchanged for a long time. There remains, however, a great deal to be 
done. The study of dramng and modelling becomes more and more 
indispensable every day, in order to enable the workmen to maintain our 
})roductions in the high esteem which they have hitherto enjoyed. Like 
that of bronze, the zinc and iron casting manufactures are greatly 



80 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

improved. They x)roduce in tlie present day works wMch. formerly 
belonged exclusively to art, and which, on account of their cost, were 
rendered almost unavailable for the decoration of private dwellings. 
Finally, all these industries are closely connected, and each of them, in 
various degrees, has undergone a perfect revolution during the last 20 
years, with the aid of the fine arts. Our best artists have readily met 
the demands of the bronze manufacturers, and the production of a host 
of articles for various usages within doors bears witness to the increas- 
ing alliance of art with industry. 

The articles exhibited in this class form six principal groups : 1. Artis- 
tic bronzes and ornamental bronzes, including statues, statuettes, clocks, 
vases, tazza, decorative candelabra, «&c. 2. Iron castings, comi)rising 
figures, vases, tazzi, fountains, candelabras, railings, balconies, crosses, 
and miscellaneous articles. 3. Imitation bronze, (composition,) including 
comi)ositions for clock cases, tazzi, vases, candlesticks, &c. 4. Eepousse 
work, including figures, vases, ornaments, &c. 5. Galvanized cast-iron. 
6. Zinc figures and ornaments, statues, statuettes, clocks, vases, &c. 
The bronze, as well as the imitation bronze and zinc trade, is essentially 
Parisian. The art, taste, and fancy which preside over these produc- 
tions have given them a special character, which, to the i)resent moment, 
has kept them above rivalry. The same may be said of repousse work, 
adding, however, that this industry, which is in its youth, or rather 
renaissance, may be expected to assume great development. The gal- 
vanization of metals, as regards France, is concentrated in Paris, but it 
is practiced in all i)arts of Europe. The application of cast-iron to orna- 
mentation is comparatively of recent date j its progress has been marked 
at each of the great exhibitions of 1851, 1855, and 1862 j the low i)rice 
of the raw material allowing of its api3lication to monumental works, 
and therefore to contribute to the adornment of large public places, and 
edifices of all kinds, i^arks, gardens, &c. Iron foundries exist in almost 
every part of France, but there are but few that produce artistic work. 
For these, asJlifor bronzes, the study and the production of the models 
are made in Paris. Paris is also the principal market for the disposal of 
these productions. The principal metals employed in the manufacture 
of bronze are : The copper of Chili, Eussia, l^ew Zealand, Minnesota, or 
Lake Superior, but the greatest i^ortion is from Chili j zinc, from Silesia 
and the YieiUe MontagTie; tin, from Banca, Sumatra, and Cornwall. 
In this branch of manufacture the metal represents two-ninths of the 
value of the production, the rest being divided between the moulder, 
the founder, the chaser, the mounter, the turner, &c. 

The principal exhibition of bronzes w^as from the establishments of 
France. The above general description of the bronze trade and manu- 
facture is from the translation of the introduction to the class by Bar- 
bedienne, member of the committee of admission of class 22, and one 
of the largest producers of artistic bronzes. 

Although the actual business of France in the articles of bronzes does 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 81 

not seem to be on tlie increase, lier supremacy in tlie manufacture is 
unquestionable. At aU periods bronze lias been a favorite material for 
art. The small bronzes of antiquity, occasionally found in Greece and 
EgA^-|>t, and of ^^bicli a vast collection has been exhumed from Hercu- 
laneum and Pomi:>eii, prove that the ancients employed this material 
preferentially for the decoration of their houses, as well as for celebrating 
the virtue and valor of their heroes. At a later period bronze was used 
for ecclesiastical purposes, and it is for the most part the objects in this 
comiiaratively valueless metal which have been i)reserved as specimens 
of the church art of the past. The rapacity of enemies, and the impe- 
cuniosity of religious bodies, have consumed almost all the works in the 
nobler metals which the church had accumulated. The Eenaissance was 
not slow to atlopt this material, and in Italy schools of bronze workers 
have flourished from the beginning of the sixteenth century. 

In France the art has passed through many trying ordeals, and sur- 
vived a variety of styles. The French section of the Exhibition con- 
tained three large compartments exclusively flUed with bronzes. The 
majority of these were in zinc bronzed, real bronze itself being vastly 
more expensive. Thus the Buveuse of Moreau, a crouching girl or 
mTnx)h drinking out of a shell, could be produced in zinc for 550 francs, 
while in bronze it would cost 2,000. For such purposes, however, many 
prefer cast-iron, of which work fine specimens were to be seen. Some 
of the castings exhibited in the state in which they had left the mould 
were exceedingly beautiful, testifying to the great perfection to which 
the French have brought this art. Statues made of this material must 
be painted or bronzed, or covered with copx)er by the galvano plastic 
method, as much to prevent rusting as to hide the unpleasant color 
of the metal, which, in its natural state, is as dull and ugly as any- 
thing can weU be. Iron is unquestionably the metal of the present 
daj', and if protected by a proper coating of copper, it is not only as 
lasting as bronze, but much less exposed to the cupidity of revolution- 
ists. The metal is almost worthless. 'No Jew, says an amusing writer 
on this subject, will buy it by the ton, like him who loaded so many cam- 
els with the Colossus of Ehodes; it would hardly pay the carriage. I^o 
revolution will coin it into pence, unless, indeed, posterity returns to the 
manners of Sparta, which is by no means the direction in which the 
world seems moving. 

There were, of course, many fine specimens of real bronze. The reduc- 
tions of famous statuary, by Barbedienne, in this substance, deserved the 
most unlimited in^aise. He is regarded as the best in the specialite, but 
there are many other names of almost equal renown. 

The only American exhibitors in this class were Messrs. H. Tucker &, 
Co., of Xew York, who brought a good collection of iron ornaments 
bronzed by a new process of their own, which is claimed to be better 
than the French method, and i)racticable at one-fourth its cost. The 
objects here shown were of general interest, and engaged the particular- 
6 u E 



82 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

attention of all Trho were in the business. Cheapness, durability, and 
sharpness of outline are the characteristics of iron when wrought suc- 
cessfully. The Tucker company have made considerable progress in 
these directions — apart from any consideration of the special merit of 
their inyention for bronzing — but the models and forms of their goods can 
very easily be improved. 



CLASS 23.— CLOCK AND WATCH WOEK. 

The exhibits of this class were divided into three series : 1. Clocks for 
public buildings and their parts, such as winding apparatus, escape- 
ments, chimes, hands, illuminating apparatus, &c. French monumental 
clock-work is an entirely national and superior industry, taken alto- 
gether, as compared with that of foreign countries, and the value of the 
manufactures, principallj' confined to Paris, may be estimated at about 
2,000,000 francs per annum. 2. The ordinary watch and clock work of 
commerce, which includes the making of the rough loarts of both, pen- 
dulums included 5 dials and time-pieces for apartments, portable time- 
pieces, common silver watches, and watches of higher finish, whether in 
silver or gold cases. 3. Astronomic regulators, and marine and pocket 
chronometers. This branch of trade only occui)ies a secondary rank, but 
it holds the first place for its scientific imi)ortance and the beauty of its 
products. 4. The accessories of horology, including the manufactiu'e of 
main and balance springs, the working of precious stones and machine 
tools. 5. Wooden clocks, the use of which is so general in villages and 
country places. The total value of the i)roductions of the trade in France 
is estimated at 35,000,000 francs. 

The centres of manufactures in France are, for the finishing of clocks, 
Paris ; for finishing of watches, Besancon, Doubs 5 for the movements of 
watches, Beaucourt, Haute Ehin, the districts of Montbeliard and Cluses, 
upper Savoy J for the wheels and parts of tiuTct and portable clocks, St. 
Mcolas, D'Aliermont, Seine Inferieiu'e, Beaucoiu^t, and Montbeliard; 
lastly, Morez, Jiu-a, for large iron clocks and those called de Comte^ prin- 
cipally used Id workshops and large fiictories. The productions of the 
last-named places form a considerable portion of this national industry, 
and it is valued at more than 4,000,000 francs. All these factories feed 
the French markets, and their manufactiu^es are also exi)orted to a con- 
siderable extent. 

The number of persons engaged in horology at Besancon is about 
15,000, men, women, and children. It is about one-seventh of the whole 
population of the arrondissement. There are 110 Avatchmaking shops, 
20 engravers, and two large establishments which refine and prepare 
gold and silver for the trade. One hundred and fifty licensed manufac- 
turers supply work to a number of isolated workmen, or to families of 
three or four persons, men and women, working together. These work- 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 83 

I)eople are di\dded into classes wliicli correspond with the various parts 
of the Avatch. Thus, there are separate workmen for the dial, the hands, 
the springs, the pendant, winders, &c. The shops that feed Besan§on 
extend at present all along the Swiss frontier in the arrondissements of 
Moreau and Pontarlier, in the district of Montbeliard, and the mountains 
of the Doubs. The last two centres, represented by large factories, only 
make the rough pieces and detached parts, such as wheels, pinions, bal- 
ance wheels, cylinders, &c. The in^oduce of Besan§on amounts to 
300,000 gold and silver watches per annum, of the value of about 
10,000,000 francs. In this amount labor is represented by about two- 
thirds, and material by the remainder. At the present moment the 
watch manufacture of Besan§on represents four-fifths of the entire con- 
sumption of France. Its progress is very rapid, as the following figures 
will show: In 1815, the total production was 54,192 watches; in 1855, 
141,9435 and in 1865, 296,012. Within the same iDeriod importation has 
considerably fallen off. It diminished from 200,000 watches in 1855 to 
45,454 in 1865. There exist many mutual aid societies in Besan§on, and 
a school of horology, towards which the municipal authorities have voted 
a grant of 20,000 francs per annum. There are turned out annually, in 
addition to a large number of alarms, musical boxes, &c., more than 
200,000 clock movements from Beaucourt, Badevel, and the district of 
MontbelLard. The town of Oluses, ui)i)er Savoy, also i^ossesses a school 
for young watchmakers. The boys are emi^loyed for making rough 
movements and detached pieces, especially pinions, which are sent to 
Besan§on or to Geneva. The manufactures of St. Mcolas d'Aliermont, 
although far from equalling that of Fran die Comte in importance, still 
furnishes a considerable share to the horological trade of France. Out 
of a i)opulation of 2,500 inhabitants, about 1,000 are emjiloyed in the 
watch trade. Chronometers and astronomical regulators are produced 
there, the prices of which range between 600 and 1,200 francs, besides a 
large quantity of wheels for clocks, alarums, and electrical apparatus. 
The produce amounts annually to 144,000 j)ieces, the value of which is 
estimated at more than 1,000,000 francs. As at Besan9on, numbers of 
workmen live in their own homes, and work, with their families, around 
the manufactories. Women are emx)loyed in preference to men for pol- 
ishing, x)ivoting, and mounting the wheels. The weight of the raw 
material employed is 50 tons per annum, copper forming nearly the entire 
bulk. The articles manufactured at St. Mcolas d'Aliermont are sent 
I)rincii)ally to Paris and London. — Translation of the introduction to Class 
23, hy Langiere. f Official catalogue. J 

At the London Exhibition of 1862 there were, of all nations, 300 
exhibitors in this class, of which 54 were French and 97 English. In 
the Exposition of 1867, the number had increased to 535, France being 
represented by 223 exhibitors, and England by 29. 

The manufacture has made more progress in France than elsewhere, 
but for scientific and the higher puri)oses of horology the English makers 



84 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

still occupy the first rank. From tlie period when timekeepers, in the 
form of the quaint "JSTuremherg egg," were invented, it has been the 
constant effort of horologists to improve the construction of horological 
instruments 5 and the efforts in this dkection have been so successful 
that ships in the middle of vast oceans are enabled, by means of chro- 
aiometers, to ascertain their position with extraordinary precision; and 
l)arties in dense forests provided with these instruments cut paths 
through them with unerring accuracy. To the marvellous precision of 
chronometers the larking of submarine telegTaph cables is, in a great 
measure, due, and without their aid the picking ui) of the lost Atlantic 
cable — one of the most astoimding feats of the centin-y — could not have 
been effected. 

This i)erfection has been attained after incessant thought, experiment, 
and trial. The principal difficulty that had to be contended with, and 
which even now has only been relatively overcome, was that of comi)en- 
sation. Metals, however carefully i)repared, exj)and and contract with 
the atmosi)here, and these variations natiu-ally interfered with rate of 
speed. The errors were of vast imi^ortance to the navigator, and admon- 
ished him that he should be very carefid that his chronometers were 
adjusted for high and low temperatures in the ice-chambers and gas-stoves 
of their makers. Bad oil was another cause of imperfect working, but 
to correct the temi^erature error was the chief aim of the makers of these 
sensitive and valuable pieces of mechanism. Yast i)rogress has been 
made in this direction. The faults of the chronometer have been brought 
down to a matter of statistics, like the rising and setting of the sun, so 
that every de\dation is regular and anticii)ated. The Arnold-Earnshaw 
compensation balance, composed of brass and steel laminse, corrects 
every temperature error to a daily rate of four seconds, which may be 
regarded as pretty nearly uniform in all temperatures between 30° and 
90O. Mr. Charles Frodsham exhibited some curious compensation bal- 
ances, involving various new constructions; also a micrometric balance 
affording a simple means of adjusting chronometers without removing 
the balance or disturbing the mean tune. 

English chronometers are, in general, constructed to go two days, or 
54 hours, and to be wound up dailj^ A considerable number, however, 
are constructed to go eight days, and are to be womid up every seventh 
day. The same gentleman exhibited an astronomical regulator combin- 
ing every accumulated improvement, including new brass tubular mer- 
cury compensation j)endulum and connecting galvanic apparatus for 
recording the time of observations. This clock was especiaUy interest- 
ing to Americans, inasmuch as it was made for Cambridge University, 
Massachusetts. It was regarded by experts as the nu>st perfect instru- 
ment of its kind in the Exposition. It is a model of the celebrated clock 
made by Mr. Frodsham for the Melbourne Observatory. The results of 
the i^erformance of this clock during three years Avere submitted to the 
jury and pronounced to be the most remarkable for acciu-acy on record. 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOE USE OF DWELLINGS. 85 

Mr. Frodsliam attributed its wonderful precision not only to meclianical 
excellence, but also to the discovery tliat few x)endnlum-rods are ever so 
perfectly liomogeneous as to lengthen directly by heat and shorten 
directly by cold. On the contrary, exiDcriments show that they often 
expand into a bow form. In submitting six rods to a temi^erature of 
600° only one of the rods remained perfectly straight, and the others 
bowed and warped into such shapes as to be entu^ely useless until they 
Avere reannealedj and what was even more surprising was the fact that 
the flat rods not only warped more than the round ones, but also warped 
edgeways. The pendulum rods used in the clock for the United States 
were submitted to this test of 600°. 

The French collection was admirable not only in fashionable and other 
kinds of watches, but also in instruments of precision for astronomical 
and marine purposes. Gaurdin exhibited a tiuTet clock built for the new 
cathedral at Buiialo, United States, and containing chimes of 43 bells? 
Tvith machinery by which the airs may be varied. The bells are sweet 
enough, but it is to be presumed that the airs icill be varied, for they 
are of a singularly trashy character, and entirely unsuited to the pur- 
l)oses for which they are intended. 

A few electrical clocks were exhibited in the French department, and 
also some specimens of clocks made by machinery at Dieppe. But in 
the latter art the French have not yet ai)proached the xjrecision of Amer- 
ican manufacturers. 

Yery ingeniously constructed, small, portable alarm clocks were 
exhibited by Phillipe. They strike an alarm and light a candle at any 
desired hour. 

Among the revolutions attempted to be effected by the French 
makers is the ten hours' movement. They wish to introduce the deci- 
mal system of time in watches, dividing the day into ten hours and the 
minutes into 100 seconds. 

The watch manufacture of Switzerland was represented by 163 exhib- 
itors, 67 of whom were from the Bernese Jura. Watches were there to 
be seen ranging in i)rice from eight francs to 1,250 francs. Among the 
cheai:) watches were some ciuious specimens constructed for exportation 
to China. A school for teaching watchmaking, founded in Geneva in 
1824, turned out some extremely fine work. Pupils are admitted at the 
age of 14, and may remain in the establishment for four years and a 
half, during which time they are taught all horological processes. The 
terms are, for natives of Switzerland, five francs a month, and for those 
of other countries, 20 francs. Natives of Switzerland also enjoy the 
advantage of being provided gratuitously with all necessary watchmak- 
ing tools. During the winter months the pupils have the privilege of 
attending free courses of lectures, given in the evening, on geometry, 
mechanics, and Mnear drawing. There are also foiu^ other schools in 
Switzerland with i)rofessors at their heads. 

Watches that are wound up with the pendant, or, as they are popu- 



86 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

larly called, tlie keyless watch, were very general. The fashion is con- 
venient and advantageous, inasmuch as the watch need never be opened, 
and is therefore kept free from dust and moisture. The invention, how- 
ever, is hy no means so novel as is generally supx)osed. It was first 
introduced, says Mr. Weld, by John Arnold, in 1823, for the conveni- 
ence of a naval officer who had lost his right arm. 

There were two exhibitors in the American department. The work- 
manship of Fournier's turret clock was regarded as extremely good. It 
was, in every respect, a carefidly constructed instrument. The contri- 
butions of the I^ew Haven Clock Company were remarkable mainly for 
the processes by which they were made. 



CLASS 24.— APPARATUS AND PROCESS FOR HEATING AND 

LIGHTING. 

In this very extensive class were included the following subjects : Fire- 
places, chimneys, stoves, furnaces, calorifiers, accessorj^ objects ; appara- 
tus for heating by gas, by hot water, by hot air j apparatus for ventilating 
and for drying stoves ; enamelled lamps, blowpipes, portable forges -, lamj^s 
for oil — mineral, vegetable, or animal j other accessories of lighting; 
apparatus for lighting by gas; i)hoto-electrical lamias; ai)i)aratus for 
lighting by magnetism. 

There were fourteen exhibitors in the American department. The 
processes employed did not vary materially from the most advanced i)rin- 
ciples of Europe, and both in warming and lighting it may be claimed 
that the United States are ahead of other nations. European makers 
address themselves mainly to the utilization of fuel, and where they 
attempt warming a building they contrive to throw a small stream of 
heat into many ai)artments without interfering with the boiling of the 
I)ot in the kitchen. 

The uses of gas are as yet imperfectly understood in Europe, owing to 
the fact that there is still a wide-spread prejudice against its use. Most 
of the contrivances were for regulating the supply, and measuring it with 
extreme accuracy. 

An ingenious contrivance was shown in the English cottage. It was 
for lighting grate tires without the troublesome use of wood, paper, and 
other combustibles. Two small tubes containing burners similar to those 
used in gas stoves are placed besides the chimney jambs. Tliey are on 
moveable joints, and can be turned to any bar. The grate is filled with 
coal and these tubes are lighted. They bloAV a blue flame into the grate, 
and rai)idly ignite the coal. 

In the French department was exhibited a plan for heating tlie new 
Grand Opera. 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 87 

CLASS 25.— PEKFUMEEY. 

This class compreliends, under tlie head of perfumery, all the mimer^ 
ous articles of the toilet. A great miniber of perfumery establishments 
exist in Paris, and there are also very important ones in I^antes, and 
nearly all over the sonth of France, particularly at Grasse, Marseilles, 
and Mce. The raw materials employed are oils and greases, impregnated 
with j)erfumes of flowers ; distilled waters, with and without alcohol ; 
cinnamon, cloves, &c. ', odoriferous chemical essences, in their natural 
state and prepared, are also used. Algeria and south of France supply 
the flowers for i)erfumery at a price relatively low. Those who produce 
special articles, such as soap, the preparation of which involves compli- 
cated operations, employ in their workshops machines of all sorts, the 
use of which is becoming general everywhere. One of the Paris exhib- 
itors who produces the raw material is a soap and x)erfume maker, and 
retails his o\tn manufactures. A large proportion of the work people 
are women ; they are employed both in the x)reparation and the making 
up of the perfumes. Children could also be employed, if required. The 
ordinary journeyman perfumers take very little time to learn the trade. 
They are divided into producers of raw materials, the pmifiers of fatty 
substances, and the perfumers, who select the perfumes, incorporate them 
in certain substances, and sell them made up in forms more or less ele- 
gant, according to their qualities. The products of perfumeries, Avhich 
attain a large total, are delivered for home consum]3tion and to agents 
for exj)ortation. The exports reach the sum of 15,000,000 francs, while 
the imports do not exceed 1,000,000 francs, including a certain quantity 
of raw materials. The exports from France are made to all parts of the 
world ; the excellent preparation of the ingredients, the care with which 
they are made up for sale, and their incontestible quality, cause them to 
be in gTcat demand, and daily increase their value and imi)ortance. It 
is to be regretted that the numerous counterfeit imitations from abroad 
tend, every now and then, to interfere with the impulse acquired by this 
branch of industry. We must signalize, however, the considerable and 
interesting progress which has been made in perfiunery during the last 
few years. The methods of working have been improved, as much in 
regard to the processes as in an economical point of view. The plant 
and utensils employed in the production of toilet soap have undergone a 
complete transformation. The use of certain machines has become gen- 
eral in the greater number of workshops. Finally, in spite of the duties 
which weigh upon some of the raw materials, we can safely assert that 
the trade of perfumery has not attained its greatest development, and 
that the formation of the syndicate will open up a new outlet, which will 
tend to maintain it in the high rank it now occupies among the great 
French industries. — {From the Official Catalogue.) 

Perfumery, in the present sense of the word, owes its origin to the 
Eg3^3tians. The process of embalming involved the use of scented sub- 



88 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

stances of all kinds, and for toilet i)nrposes aromatic preparations were 
used in great profusion. The unguents used by tlie priests were com- 
pounded ^\it]l sucli skill that a specimen in the museum of Alnwick castle 
was found, a few years ago, to have retained its scent after the lapse of 
3,000 or 4,000 years. The Jews, after the Israelite captivity in Egj^^t, 
possessed themselves of all the secrets of the Egj^ptians, and improved 
upon them. They became the greatest experts of the ancient world in 
preparing odors of all kinds. All the Asiatic nations exhibited an intense 
love of perfumes. The Greeks were addicted to fine scents, and the 
wise Solon enacted sumptuary laws on the subject. The Eomans brought 
many Greek customs from parts of southern Italy which had been set- 
tled by the Hellenes, and among others that of perfuming the body. 
Julius Csesar issued a mandate like Solon against the importation of 
these dangerous articles, but without success. Caligula the Gross con- 
stantly bathed in perfumed waters, and in ]^ero's golden palace the 
drinking tables were made with concealed silver pipes, which cast on the 
guests a spray of essences. The unctuarium of a Eoman bath contained 
innumerable x)reparations for the hair, the beard, and body. The boudoir 
of a Eoman beauty was a complicated laboratory, where nature's idea of 
beauty was corrected according to the latest code of fashion, even to the 
particular of changing the obstinate color of the fair one's han^, which 
then, as now, was considered beautiful if auburn, light brown, or golden. 
The dye used consisted of a soap from Germany made of goat's fat and 
ashes, no doubt containing some very powerfid alkali. 

Arabia discovered the secret of extracting perfumes from flowers by 
the process of distillation, and the first flower to surrender its sweets 
was the rose. Hence the earliest commercial i)erfume was, and still is, 
known by the name of ''rose water." This must not be confused with 
" otto of rose," which is an Indian preparation of singular potency and 
great price. The story of its discovery is related by Mr. Eimmel and 
other writers on this very interesting topic. A fair princess, while walk- 
ing in her garden, through tvhich meandered a gentle stream of rose 
water, observed certain oily particles floating on the siu-face, and this 
turned out to be the veritable " otto." In the present day the essence is, 
of course, i^rociuTxl by means of distillation. 

Musk, although known to many nations of antiquity, seems to have 
been the special favorite of the Chinese, owing, loerhaps, to the fact that 
many of the northern provinces of China are the " habitat" of the musk 
deer, a little animal about the size of a greyhound, from whence the per- 
fume is obtained. When once musk has been used, its obliteration from 
the sense of smell is almost impossible, as an instance of which it is stated 
by Dr. Piesse that the walls of Malmaison, inhabited more than forty 
years ago by the Empress Josephine, though since then repeatedly rubbed 
and i)ainted, and even Avashed Avith acpiafortis, still retain the odor of 
this imi)erishable scent, of Avhich, it is needless to add, the emi)ress was 
inordinately fond. 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS, 89 

Soap, it may liere be added, ^iietlier perfumed or otlierwise, was known 
to many savage nations long- before it was discovered by Europeans. 

Tliese historical i)articulars, and tlie precise statistics of the French 
department, will suffice for a rapid glance at a class which cannot be 
made interesting by description, save by him who can paint the lily and 
perfume the rose. The French display was fine, not only in the manner 
in which these delicacies were ''put up" for the market, but especially 
fine in the exhibit of essences and materials em^iloyed by perfumers of 
all countries in the fabrication of their goods. There were sixty-two 
exhibitors. 

After France, England, except in the article of eau-de-Oologne, in 
which Prussia, of course, bore off the i)alm, ranked next. She had fif- 
teen exhibitors. There were two contributions from America. 

The contribution from Egypt was made by his Highness the Viceroy, 
and consisted of '' galena" in powder, called ''lohle," used for darkening 
the eyebrows and eyelids f henna powder, "lansonia alba," used for the 
toilet of Arab women 5 soap made at Cairo, small caskets; scented wood, 
used for x)erfuming rooms 5 '' dilka" (cosmetic) and ostrich grease, used 
by the women of Nubia and the Soudan ,• wooden bottles, covered with 
embroidered tissues, containing bladders of crocodile musk and various 
perfumes used in the '' Sennarj" wooden bottle and pencil used for the 
coloring of the eyebrows and eyelids ; ivory horns used for perfumery by 
the nomade Arab tribes -, wigs Avorn by the negroes of Mams-Mams on 
fete days. 

His Highness the Bey of Tunis sent : Metikaux, essences of roses, cas- 
sia, behar, cloves, amarante, double jasmine, aloes, ambergris, sfax, jas- 
mine, and mixed perfumes -, ambergris pastilles, zebed pomade, chenouda, 
and oil of jasmine; '' sousse" soaps, with and without scent; orange 
flower, ''nesri," jasmine, rose, and other waters. 

CLASS 26.— MOKOCCO WORK, FANCY ARTICLES, AND BASKET 

WORK. 

The articles exhibited in class 26 rei)resented several trades which are 
closely connected ; we may say in a general way that they belong to 
that kind known under the name of '' articles de Paris." There are three 
principal series : 1. Articles in Morocco leather, and other small fancy 
articles ; 2. Articles in fancy wood ; 3. Basket work. 

MOROCCO WORK AND OTHER SMALL FANCY ARTICLES. 

The small fancy articles included under this head are pocket-books, 
dressing and travelling-cases, purses, cigar-cases, &c. The manufacture 
of articles in morocco leather is chiefly confined to Paris, and particularly 
to the third arrondissement. For these manufactures a great variety of 
materials are used, of which the principals are sheep, goat, boar, and 
other skins, specially prepared ; paper, silk, velvet; rosewood, mahogany, 
oak, and other woods derived from Algeria; bone, horn, ivory, tortoise- 



90 PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

shell, gold, silver, and veneers are also employed, besides iron, steel, 
copper, white metal, and sometimes alnmininm is nsed. 

A great number of instruments and tools are used to work the different 
materials 5 turning-lathes, presses, stamping and drawing machines, dies 
to cut out stuffs, frames, &c. 5 paring, ijiercing, and hinge-making 
machines 5 sewing and stitching machines 5 polishing and nail-making 
and tempering machines. The last-named description are moved by 
steam, the former by hand. The great variety of articles in morocco 
makes it difficult to reckon the value of the materials used; we can say, 
however, that it is of no great importance, when the articles are plain, 
and require no ornamentation in gold or silver. Most of the manufac- 
turers have no working establishments, and do not employ any, men in 
their workshops -, they resort to cabinet-makers, jewellers, and others, who 
work by the piece. One-third of those employed are women ; they almost 
all work for employers. The salaries vary in Paris from five francs to 
six francs for men, and from two francs fifty centimes to three francs for 
women. The articles are delivered direct to the retail venders, and to the 
agents for exi)ortation. Two-thirds or so are sold in France ; the remain- 
ing third is exported, principally to America, England, Germany, Spain, 
Eussia, and several other countries. The production of articles in 
morocco, including small fancy articles, dressing and other cases, repre- 
sents more than 12,000,000 francs. The manufacture of these articles 
has been much improved since 1855, and is constantly on the increase ; 
and, at the present time, the articles are remarkable for great finish, good 
taste, and variety of shape. 

AUTICLES IN FANCY WOOD, BASKET-WORK, ET-C. 

These include small articles in ivory, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, 
shell, horn, bone, cocoa, hardwood, &c., such as ivory statuettes, billiard 
balls, combs, snuff-boxes, brush mountings, fans, screens, chessmen, 
dominoes, draughts, tric-trac counters, parasol and umbrella handles, 
and quantities of other articles in general use. The small lacquer-boxes 
belong to the same class. Their manufacture is carried on chiefly in 
Paris, Dieppe, St. Cloud, (Jura,) Beauvais, and in the cantons of Meru 
and ]t>roailles (Oise,) Beaumont, (Seine and Oise,) in the arrondissement 
of Eureux, (Eiu^e,) and in the departments of the Aisne, Marne, and 
Loire, Moselle, and Yosges. The articles exhibited in class 26 belong 
almost exclusively to the Paris trade. The materials employed are of 
gTcat variety, both as to price and origin. The following are the most 
generally used: gold, silver, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, ivory, horn, 
cocoa-nut wood, pasteboard, waxed leather, &c. ; for the manufacture ot 
pipes, meerschaum, brier-root, common and yellow amber, liorn, ivory, 
bone, all the white woods, colonial woods, cherry, ebony, &c.; for combs, 
tortoise-shell, ivory, common horn, Irish horn, and buffalo liorn, wood, 
hardened India-rubber, and, in some cases, metals. 

The mode of manufacture of these articles is extremely varied 5 it 



FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS FOR USE OF DWELLINGS. 91 

clianges with, tlie articles produced. The work is usually done by liand ; 
nevertlieless, the comb-makers have used machinery to cut out the plates 
of horn and tortoise-shell. The daily wages are five or six francs for 
men, and two francs fifty centimes or three francs for women. Two- 
thirds of the workmen work by the piece, and about two-thirds of the 
workwomen are emi)loyed in workshops. The trade includes many 
specialties. The i^rincipal men employed are sculi)tors, engravers, 
painters, lacquerers, horn-flatteners, workers in bronze, pasteboard 
cutters, decorators, filers, inlayers, moulders, polishers, turners, &c. j for 
women, i^asteboard shai)ers, polishers, and piercers, (reper censes.) Most 
of the tradesmen employ workmen at home, and have no workshoi)s; a 
certain number of workmen work on their own account, and sell their 
articles to the special houses in Paris, or the provinces, and to commis- 
sion merchants, for exportation. The amount of production of these 
small fancy articles represents as much as 50,000,000 francs. Paris alone, 
whose products are almost exclusively shown in class 26, makes 11,000,000 
francs. 

The greater portion of the products are sent to America, England, 
Eussia, Spain, and Germany. During the last 10 years, the manufacture 
of fancy articles has become very important ; brush-making particidarly 
has made great progress. We may note, in the first place, an important 
decrease in the price of almost all the products, and we can add that the 
Paris workmen are particularly skilful in the manufacture of fancy boxes. 

BASKET-MAKING. 

Basket-making has but a small space in class 26 ] however, a few fancy 
articles, which are only manufactured in Paris, may be seen there. These 
are baskets and flower-stands in osier, painted, varnished, bronzed, gilt, 
and remarkable by the variety of their ornaments. Few common baskets 
are made in Paris. It has become a most active branch of industry in 
several departments, and chiefly in the Aisne, at Brigny-en-Yierache, 
near YeTvins.— (Extracted from tJie translation of the Official Catalogue.) 

The articles embraced in this class were so numerous that it would be 
easier to describe one-half of the fancy stores of Paris, and two-thirds of 
those of Vienna, than to give an idea of their infinite variety and extent. 
Kevertheless, they were divided into three families, called, in French, 
maroqiiinerie, tahletterie, et vannerie. Each of these families was numerous 
enough, and distant offsprings were to be found in every part of the build- 
ing. Maroqiiinerie proper relates to large objects, such as travelling bags, 
&c.^ la petite maroquinerie, to small articles, as purses, &c. They are, as 
the name implies, made from morocco leather, or imitations thereof. 
Tahletterie comprises all articles turned in ivory and wood; vannerie., 
everything that is wrought by the basket- worker. 

The French had 93 exhibitors in class 2Q^ and for ingenuity, elegance, 
and beauty combined, were incontestably ahead of any other nation. 
The Enghsh excelled in leather articles, where substantiality (as in dress- 



92 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

ing-cases) was tlie desideratum. The Austrians were formidable rivals 
to both nations. 

A small amount of usefulness and a large proportion of style are the 
characteristics of all the well-known objects of class 26. Most of the 
novelties were consequently dependent on the latter quality, no new 
material having been lately introduced into the manufacture of these 
charming objects. 

Mr. Latry (France) exhibited several articles in hard wood, which 
were not exactly what they j^retended to be. They were, in reality, 
comx)osed of fine wood-dust, mixed with the blood of animals. This 
cimous process is new and a trade secret. The intensely black appear- 
ance given to the articles is ascribed to the carbonization of blood, 
caused by the action of heat — boiling or baking. 

Another exhibitor displayed a slab of ivory of unusual proportions and 
vastly larger than could be obtained from the diameter of the elephant's 
tusk. It was obtained by sawing spirally, in concentring rings, a longi- 
tudinal portion of the solid ivory and then opening the coils into one 
sheet by means of steam or some other softening i)rocess. The specimen 
was 1^ foot long by 1 foot broad. 

The exliibition of England in leather articles was extremely good. 
Austria shone best in the smaller ware, in articles made of stag-horn, 
and in the specialty of meerschaum pipes. Meerschaum, though popu- 
larly supi)osed to be made from the froth of the sea, is, in reality, a fine 
clay, found principally on the coasts of the Korth sea, and is composed 
of hydrate of magnesia combined with silex. It is easily and cheaply 
imitated. 

There were six American exhibitors in this class. The beautiful skele- 
ton leaves of Mrs. Hanxhurst, the meerschaum pii^es of Kaldenberg & 
Sons, and the wax flowers of Mrs. Bloodgood, were excellent specimens 
of conscientious and thoughtful skiU. 



GROUP IV. 

CLOTHING— INCLUDING FABRICS AND OTHER 
OBJECTS WORN ON THE PERSON. 

Class 27. Cotton Yarns, Threads, and Tissues.— Class 28, Flaxen and HexMPEn 
Yarns, Threads, and Tissues. — Class 29. Combed Wool and Worsted Yarns 
AND Fabrics.— Class 30. Carded Wool and Woollen Yarns and Fabrics.— 
Class 31. Silkand Silk Manufactures. —Class 32. Shawls. — Class 33. Lace, Net, 
Embroidery, and Trimmings. — Class 34. Hosiery, Under-Clothing, and Minor 
Articles.— Class 35. Clothing for both Sexes.— Class 36. Jewelry and Orna- 
ments.— Class 37. Portable Arms.— Class 38. Travelling and Camp Equipage. — 
Class 39. Toys. 

The articles included in tliis group are of vital importance to nations, 
constituting, indeed, the most active source of industry and wealth. 
There is hardly a country in the world that is not, in our clays, affected 
by the interests radiating from the cotton trade ; yet it is hardly more 
than a hundred years that cotton goods were regarded as a luxury. It 
was known long before having been introduced into Europe as a produce 
of India, in the time of the Romans, but the earliest traces of the em- 
ployment of the raw material do not go beyond the sixteenth century. 
The manufacture at that time was almost exclusively French, the cotton 
being obtained from the Levant. In 1770 the consumption of raw cot- 
ton in France was only 1,600 tons a year. In England it had reached 
2,500 tons J though the manufacture had been introduced later, it had 
already made more rax)id progress. In that year America sent to 
Eiu-ope her first ventiu^e in raw cotton. It was a ton! Before the 
rebellion, in 1859, that is, in 90 years, the export from America had 
reached the incredible quantity of 600,000 tons. 

Since that time cotton has been cultivated in almost every quarter of 
the globe, and with more success than could have been anticipated. 
Owing to this circumstance the production of cotton goods was barely 
interrupted by the war. 

The English manufacture in 1865 was of a value of more than 
£80,000,000 sterling, of which £52,000,000 were exported. The quantity 
of cotton consumed by all the other countries of Europe and by the 
United States, collectively, was about one-fifth more than that required 
for Great Britain alone, where nearly a million of persons are employed 
in this branch of industry. 

It was natural, under these circumstances, to have anticipated a large 
display in the British section ; but those who had this idea were doomed 
to disapi)ointment. There were but 30 exhibitors, against 210 in France. 
Even these 30 made but an indifferent effort at display. " The exhibi- 
tion of British cotton goods," says Mr. Murray, in his official report, ^' was 
chiefly remarkable, as to its contents, for the absence of many important 



94 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

and essential departments ; and as to its arrangements^ for tlie absence 
of tlie practical common sense one is accustomed to expect in connection 
mth tliat large and active manufacture. The goods were, for tlie most 
part, in glass cases, wliere tliey could neither he seen to advantage nor 
tested by the touch. The display was mute and useless to the practical 
visitor, and quite unattractive to the general i)ublic. Among the absen- 
tees were nearly all the leading houses of the trade." 

The Scotch manufacturers entirely abstained from making a display, 
and thus several lighter branches of the trade were entirely unrepre- 
sented. There were no plain or printed muslins, no Jacquard muslin 
curtains, no muslin linings, no ginghams, no handkerchiefs. Even from 
Manchester, whence the principal exhibitors came, most of the leading 
branches failed to appear. Yarns, with a single excei^tion, were con- 
spicuously absent. Calico, of which England exports £23,000,000 worth 
a year, was represented only in one branch. Fine shirtings, another 
immense branch, and that of prints, of which she spreads far over 
£16,000,000 over the world, declined to appear with remarkable una- 
nimity. Excepting the articles of sewing thread, which was well repre- 
sented, and of which the exi)orts are £75.0,000, and the calicos just men- 
tioned, the Manchester exhibition consisted of a few minor branches, in 
most cases imperfectly represented, which, as exports, do not sum up, 
altogether, a million a year. This remarkable absence is ascribed to the 
operations of a tariff, which maintains a i)rotection of 10 to 20 x)er cent, 
against British goods. 

The French display of aU kinds of cotton goods contrasted with that 
of Englaud, greatly to the disadvantage of the latter, not only in com- 
pleteness and arrangement, but in the particular that everything was 
left open, to be touched and examined by all comers. 

The Swiss collection was well arranged and attractive, especially in 
the particular of Turkey red. A couj unction of favorable circumstances, 
l)lenty of pui^e water, cheap labor, and steady, determined industry, have 
given the Swiss the lead of the Avorld in this branch. Cheap, but well 
printed and effective calicos, were also exhibited by several firms, com- 
l^eting successfully with the best goods of the same class in the French 
department. 

Germany has many exhibitors. The most remarkable of the cotton 
goods were those intended for men's clothing, imitating woollen cloths, 
of which Armitage showed various specimens intended for the American 
market. Some excellent specimens of velvet and velveteen were also 
sent l)y the PoAver Loom Comj^any of Linden. 

Belgium occupied a very important position, and held her own against 
all comi^etition with true gallantry. The quiltings and piquets were the 
most successful articles in the display. The calicos Avere both good and 
cheap, and cloths for men's clothing similar to those exhibited in the 
German court were plentiful. 
There were four American exhibitors in this class. 



CLOTHING, 95 

Mr. Murray, to whose report we liave already made reference, con- 
cludes his survey vdth these frank words : 

" Few practical and reflective observers will glance, even as huiTiedly 
as we have done, round these competitive displays of industrial ability 
in cotton manufacture, without feeling, however long and largely Eng- 
land may retain the leadership, anytliing like an extensive empire or 
undisputed sway in the cotton trade is no longer possible. The superior 
education of continental workmen in certain branches, or the better 
position of foreign merchants in regard to certain articles, already 
reduce us (England) to a secondary position in some respects. If, in all 
countries, as excellent a system of x)ublic education and as independent 
a spirit prevailed as in Switzerland, our i^osition would soon be menaced 
in many more directions. These exhibitions of the rapidly develoi^ing 
X:>owers of so many rival centres of production must quicken our efforts, 
hj education, by political development, by co-operative interests, by 
every means in our power, to bring every latent energy of our popula- 
tion to bear in maintaining our position. While we are hovering round 
the question of national education, and hesitating over the petty inter- 
ests of parties in regard to it, the industrial sceptre is imperceptibly 
slipping away from us ; and, with practical obtuseness, we shall refuse 
to see it till the fact is accomx)lished and it is too late to mend.'' 



CLASS 27.— COTTON YAENS, THREADS, AND TISSUES ; AND 
CLASS 28— FLAXEN AND HEMPEN YARNS, THREADS, AND 

TISSUES. 

The following statistics relating to classes 27 and 28 are extracted 
from the official catalogue : 

The districts in France where these yarns and fabrics are manufactured 
may be divided into four groui3S : 1. The Haut Ehin and Yosges, whose 
centre is the to^^i of Mulhouse, produces aU these articles, but particu- 
larly the more common sorts, such as calico, cambric, muslin, jaconet and 
prints. 2. Normandy, which comprehends the dei)artments of the Seine 
Inferieure, Calvados, and Orne, and in the towns of Eouen, Flers, Conde- 
sur-Noireau, Evreux, &c., are maufactiu^ed cotton cloths, handkerchiefs, 
jeans, prints, checks, and other articles, in which the price of the cotton 
employed bears a large proportion to the cost of the manufacturer. 3. 
In the group formed by the departments of the Nord, Aisne, and Somme, 
containing the towns of Lille, Eoubaix, St. Quentin, and Amiens, are 
principally to be found manufactures of cotton yarn for net and lace of 
thin fabrics, figured muslin, curtains, and cotton velvet. 4. Tarare pro- 
duces tarletan, muslin, and embroidered muslin curtains ; Eoanne, col- 
ored fabrics, and checks. The cotton emi)loyed by the French manufac- 
tories for the last forty years has been almost completely derived from 
the United States of America, which produced yearly from 700,000,000 to 



96 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

1,000,000,000 kilograms. This market has been entirely closed for the 
last four years. India, China, Egyi^t, the Brazils, and the coasts of the 
Mediterranean have developed their prodnction during this time, and 
have alone furnished cotton to the whole world. The price of middling 
Kew Orleans cotton, which, before the war, was 1 franc 80 centimes the 
kilogram, rose in 1864 to 7 francs, and is now worth 3 francs 10 cen- 
times. Good Indian cotton costs, generally, about a franc less per kilo- 
gram. 

Machinery has everywhere replaced manual labor in the cotton spin- 
ning trade, which employs more than 6,250,000 spindles. The weaving 
is also, in a great measure, done by machmerj^, especially that of the 
more usual articles of consumption. In the departments of the Haut 
Ehin and the Yosges, Avhere 50,000 looms are employed, about 9,000 only 
are worked by hand. Hand weaving is still maintained for the manu- 
facture of those fabrics w^hich, subject to the changes of fashion, demand 
great variety of style and pattern, such as the thin tissues of St. Quentin 
and Tarare, i)iques for waistcoats, and the other miscellaneous articles of 
the department of the Seine Inferieure. Machinery, by reducing the 
l^rices of the productions, and thereby enlarging the demand, employs a 
greater number of workmen than did the hand-looms. About 80,000 
power-looms and 200,000 hand-looms are worked in France. In those 
departments where machinery is principally used the workmen work 
together in large manufactories 5 where, on the contrary, hand labor i^re- 
dominates, the weavers usually work at home. About 600,000 hands 
are employed in the cotton trade and are mostly paid by the i)iece. Out 
of this number about 200,000 work in their own dwellings. 

The x)roduce of the cotton trade is sold in the central to^ms of the 
different manufacturing districts. Mulhouse is the market of the eastern 
department, while Rouen is that of the western. There are also smaller 
markets : Flers for jeans, Amiens for velvets, St. Quentin for piques 
and figured muslins, and Tarare for tarletans and embroidered muslins. 
Most of the manufacturers have a depot at Paris, sometimes dealing 
directly with the public and at others through the medium of a large 
wholesale house. This makes Paris one of the principal markets of the 
cotton trade. 

The importation of cotton from different sources dimng the year 1866 
amounted to 120,000 tons, of the estimated value of 420,000,000 francs. 
The yarns and woven fabrics produced amounted to 105,000 tons, of the 
value of 800,000,000 francs, the cost of manufacturing which may be set 
down at 320,000,000 francs. The export was 21,000 tons. 

The connnittee of admission of this class make the following reports 
upon tlie progress of the cotton trade in France during the last 12 years : 

^' 1. All the machinery employed in tlie preparation and spiniiing of cot- 
ton has been mucli improved. For the old spinning machinery have been 
substituted self-acting macliines which make thread of all sizes from l^o. 
1 to No. 200, the first measuring 1,000 metres and the second 200,000 
metres to the pound. 



CLOTHING 97 

"2. Tlie almost universal use of power-looms in tlie manufacture of 
heavy fabrics, the invention of the fast-working looms, throwing the 
shuttle no less than 240 times a minute, and making from the coarsest 
to the finest fabrics 5 the bringing into general use of sizing machines. 

'^3. Mimerous improvements in the details of cotton prmting; the 
emi)lo}Tnent of new colors ; the introduction of new machines which, 
receiving between their rollers a white material, deliver it up printed in 
ten or twelve colors. Dimng the last 12 years the French manufacturers 
have renewed their machinery, and well-organized mills, which were the 
exception in 1855, have now become the rule. The treaties of commerce 
which have led to a wholesome rivalry with foreign countries have 
accelerated this improvement. The employment of Indian cotton has 
necessitated a change in the machinery, and permits the use of part of 
the raw produce which was formally rejected, leaving but small amount 
of waste. 

FLAXEN^ AND HEMPEN YARNS, THREADS AND TISSUES. 

^' The hnen trade comi)rises the preparation, spinning, and weaving of 
various textile materials, such as flax, hemp, jute, China grass, &c. We 
have only to treat here of the spinning and weaving of these fibres from 
which are made cambric, lawn, coarse and fine linen of all kinds, damasks, 
diapers, and various tissues of thread mixed with cotton and silk. 

'' The principal seats of the French linen trade are : Lille, Dunkirk, 
Boulogne- sur-mer, Amiens, AbbeviUe, Yalenciennes, Cambray, Chollet, 
and Lisieux. Hempen fabrics are made especially in the dei)artments of 
Sarthe and Finistere. Lisieux and Noirmoutier are famous for white sheet- 
ings. Flax, hemp, jute, and China grass are grown in various countries. 
The flax used in France comes ijrincii^ally from the north of France, 
Belgium, Picardy, and I^formandy. The flax grown in the department 
of the Kord and in the environs of Bernay (Eure) is of superior quality, 
but not equal to that produced near Courtray in Belgium. Eussia also 
supplies us ^^itli x^retty good flax, but which can only be employed for 
the lower numbers of yarns. 

'' Flax is very variable in x)rice, but we may take 1 franc 70 centimes the 
kilogram as about the average price of l^o. 30 of good current quality. 
Flax is cheaper than hemp ; the best kinds come from Picardy and Cham- 
pagne. The average j^rice of heckled hemi) is about 90 to 120 francs. 
Jute comes from the East Indies in large quantities ; its i)rice for some 
time has been about 45 francs the 100 kilograms. China grass, the 
name of which indicates its origin, is a textile fibre which is likely in 
fiitiu^e to become of considerable importance in our trade. The methods 
of preparation and working are very nearly the same for all kinds of 
textile matters. The plant is first submitted to the operation of rotting, 
which is generally i)erformed by allowing it to soak in water or to expose 
it on the ground until the gummy matter which it contains is dissolved. 
^N'ext comes the operation of beating, the object of which is to separate 
7 u E 



98 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

the fibres from tlie rest of tlie plant. These two operations belong to 
agriculture. The spinners of flax and hemp purchase their materials of 
salesmen who travel about the country and act as middlemen between 
the farmers ai^d the spinners. These materials are ready to be submitted 
to the operations of the spinning millSj from which manual labor may be 
said to have been banished entirely, except in the case of yarns of excep- 
tional fineness used for the production of cambric. 

''The number of spindles has increased from 90,000 in 1842 to 600,000 
in 1865. Power-looms are being substituted more every day for hand- 
looms, as allowing of a more rapid and economical production. Of the 
whole number of persons employed in the flax and hemp mills two-thirds 
are women ) but in power-loom weaAdng the proportion is only about one- 
half. In each case the female work-i)eople gain 2 francs to 2 francs 50 
centimes per day, and the men 2 francs 50 centimes to 4 francs. The 
organization of the linen trade is now very jiowerful in France. Some 
large manufacturers sell their goods directly to retail dealers or agents. 
The business increases daily in extent, and the importation, especially of 
table and toilet linen, has become insignificant. The prices of the various 
kinds of fabrics are extremely various ; very low for certain qualities and 
certain widths, and very high for the finer sorts and widest kinds. Linen 
cloth, for instance, varies from 80 centimetres to 3 metres in width, and in 
price from 75 centimes to 15 francs. The manufacture of linen or hemx^en 
cloth and jute tissues has increased largely during the past few years, as 
the following figures show : The imx)orts of flax and tow, which were 
only 19,200 tons in 1862, had risen to 48,000 tons in 1865. The importa- 
tion of raw jute rose from 6,300 tons in 1862 to 10,650 tons in 1865. On 
the other hand, the exportation of heckled flax and tow fell ofl' from 
7,037 tons in 1862 to 6,068 tons in 1865, while the exports of yarns rose 
from 497 tons in 1862 to 2,374 tons in 1865. The exx)ortation of plain 
linens rose from 2,054 tons in 1862 to 3,254 tons in 1865. It must be 
added that these results were i:)rincipaUy due to the cotton crisis ; but 
they owe something also to the imi^rovements made in the machinery 
emifloyed in its manufacture. Some very happy modifications have been 
introduced of late years into the machines employed in combing flax and 
preparing tow. In weaving, as we have ah^eady said, self-acting power- 
looms are replacing those worked by hand, and thus the quantity pro- 
duced has been increased while the cost of labor has been diminished. 
Some very imx)ortant establishments for spinning and weaving have been 
set on foot. It is right to add, in justice to the linen trade, that most of 
the great works are constructed and arranged in the most favorable con- 
ditions with regard to the welfare of the work-people employed in them." 

CLASSES 29-30.— COMBED AND CARDED WOOL AND WORSTED 
YARNS AND FABRICS. 

These two classes, embracing the most extensive and ancient form of 
industry known to the world, were represented competitively by all the 



CLOTHING. 9t) 

manufiactiirmg countries of Europe and by seven exhibitors from tlie 
United States. The range of articles being very large the display was 
natm^ally of great imiiortance, particularly to exi)erts. As a matter of 
interest to the eye it was unattractive, and there was little in either class 
that could engage other than a technical pen. Coats and pantaloons in 
the concrete have no innate charm, and wool and worsted, although com- 
fortable to wear, are unsuggestive in a literary point of view. It will 
be readily understood that this manufactiu'e does not admit of much 
scope for artistic design. It depends on a successful blending of colors 
and an ascertainable degree of perfection in texture and finish. The 
French excel in fine and fancy articles 5 the English in plain tissues ; and 
the German and Belgian makers in imitations, having cheapness for their 
main end. During the past ten years shoddy has come greatly into use, 
and it is said that as much as 60 per cent, can be employed advantageously 
in cheap materials. Shoddy is the woolly part of old garments cleaned 
and prepared by processes that are daily being improved. By utilizing 
material that was formerly cast away as waste, great progress has, of 
late years, been made in the production of cheap cloths. 

We give below the following details of the trade in France : 

"" Class 29 includes : 1. Combed avooI ; 2. Woollen yarns combed and 
carded 5 3. Tissues of piu^e combed wool ; 4. Flannels and fancy stuffs of 
carded and slightly fettled wool -, 5. Tissues of wool mixed with other 
materials. 

^^ The principal centres of production for these articles are : Eheims, 
Eoubaix, St. Quentin, Amiens, Mulhouse, St. Marie-aux-Mines, Eouen, 
Foiumies, and Le Cateau, in the K"ord; Guise, in the Aisne; and, lastly, 
Paris. 

''In 1855, French wool held a more important place in the supply of 
oiu^ manufactories than it does at present. At that period, but little was 
known of Australian wool, of which 23,000 tons was imported in 1865. 
On the other hand, the imports from Belgium, Spain, Germany, Turkey, 
Algeria, La Plata, and other countries have not diminished in impor- 
tance; they amounted, dimug the same year to nearly 50,000 tons. It 
is Australia, however, which has principally met the increased demands 
of oiu^ trade. These various wools are now combed and woven by admira- 
bly constructed machinery; the weaving of wooUens by i)Ower-looms, 
which was scarcely tried in 1855, has acquired of late years, and particu- 
larly since 1862, a Tsqyid development, and is increasing daily. Still, 
hand weaving has not diminished in importance ; but it has remained 
nearly stationary; and the increase in production is due to the employ- 
ment of mechanical means. 

"The situation of the work-people employed in the manufacture of 
wooUen fabrics is improved. Those engaged in combing and spinning 
works have not suffered from want of work, and their wages are gen- 
erally high. The same has been the case with the power-loom weavers ; 
but in spite of the imi^ortauce which i)ower-loom weaving has akeady 



100 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

assumed, tlie number of power-loom weavers is still very iuferior to that 
of tlie weavers wlio work by haud at their own houses 5 and, in the 
' Aisne,' the proportion of the former to the latter does not exceed five 
per cent. The proportion of women employed in combing and spinning', 
as well as in the weaving of woollen fabrics, whether working in factories, 
or at home, varies greatly according to local conditions ] it may be safely 
estimated that it amounts to one-half in some places, and two-thirds in 
others. I^early all the woollens, whether pure or mixed, manufactured 
for consumption in France, are adopted by other nations 5 the prices have 
been much reduced since 1855, in spite of the maintenance or the increase 
in price of the raw materials. The growth of the manufacture has been 
very favorable to the maintenance of the quotations with respect to these 
matters ; but the same development has often, on the contrary, i)roduced 
a depreciation in the value of the manufactured articles by the supera- 
bundant supply. Thus, the manufacturer has been compelled to look for 
his profit in the continual imi^rovement of his methods and industrial 
processes. To this frequent over supply, and consequent increase of the 
stocks, must also be attributed the incessant efforts of the manufacturer 
to place himself in direct communication with the retailer and the 
exporter, and thus avoid the middleman. 

"The home and export trade, and the means of production have grown 
rapidty. In 1855, the imports of raw wool only amounted to 68,000,000 
francs; while, in 1865, they reached 217,000,000 francs. The exports of 
woollen of all kinds have followed the same rapid course, having risen 
from 165,000,000 francs in 1855 to 396,000,000 francs in 1865, in w^hich 
amounts yarns and stuffs of combed avooI represented 279,000,000 francs. 
Eemarkable improvements have, moreover, contributed since 1855 to 
the development of the production and exportation. 'New methods of 
combing and spinning; ingenious means of facilitating the work of the 
oi)erative or the machinery 5 the application of the products of aniline 
as coloring matters; and lastly, the introduction into France of new 
methods of dressing, have enabled the manufacturers of combed wool to 
make successive reductions in the price of their fabrics, while losing 
none of their superiority. — From the translation of the Introduction to the 
Class hy Gustave Larsonnier. 

CARDED WOOL AND FAT^RTCS. 

"The pro<lucts exhibited in class 30 form four principal series : 
"1. Black and colored broadcloths, livery cloths, billiard and coach 
cloths, black satin cloths, eider-down cloths, and castors. 
"2. Fancy paletot and ladies' cloths. 

"3. Fancy trouserings. «k 

" 4. Articles for jackets and fancy suits. These productions are manu- 
factured in five great groups in France: 

" 1. The group of ]^ormandy,the centre of which is the town of Elbeuf, 
and which includes the departments of the Seine Inferieure, Eiu^e, and 



CLOTHING. 101 

Calvados. The towns of Elbeiif and Louviers prodnce nearly all tlie 
descriptions of goods cited above. Yire, Lisienx, and Romarantin pro- 
duce cheap fabrics especially, such as pilot cloths, fancy trouserings, and 
velvet cloths for ladies' mantles. 

"2. The Ardennes group, the centre of which is Sedan, and where are 
manufactiu^ed principally the black tissues, such as satin cloths, cash- 
meres, eider-downs, fancy paletot cloths, and ladies' velvet cloths. 

" 3. The Isere group, of which the centre is Vienna, and which produces 
mostly low-priced goods for trousers, paletots, and complete suits, as well 
as ladies' cloths. 

'^4. The Haut Ehin and Moselle group, the centre of which is the town 
of Bischwiller, and which produces satin cloths, paletots and black fancy 
cloths; the coarse stuffs for country wear are principally made at ISTancy. 

'' 5. The southern group, comprising the towns of Carcassone, Mazamet, 
Saint Pons, and Bedarieux, which iDroduce generall}' all the kinds of 
cheap goods mentioned above. The town of Ohateam-oux, which sup- 
plies the cloth for the army, may be added to this groui). 

'^The wool employed by the French manufacturers is indigenous or 
imported trom Grermany, Australia, Eussia, Buenos Ayres, and Spain. 
The i)rice of washed undried wool varies from 5 francs to 12 francs. 
Mechanism has been almost everywhere substituted for hand labor ; hand- 
loom weaving is only now employed in the manufactiu'e of articles in 
which the designs following the caprices of fashions demand great variety. 
Of these articles are the stuffs for trousers, paletots, jackets, and ladies' 
clothing. Mechanical labor, by reducing the price of the goods, induces 
large consumption, and, consequently, the emi)loymeut of more work- 
men. It may be estimated that the labor and the general expenses, tak- 
ing the average of winter and summer clothing, adds one-third to the 
cost of the raw material. Where steam i^ower predominates, the opera- 
tives work in the factories 5 where, on. the contrary, hand labor is still 
emi:)loyed, the majority work at home; in both cases they are generally 
paid by the piece. About two-thirds of the whole of the work-people 
are engaged in factories j the proportion of women employed is about 
two-fifths. The manufactured goods are sold in the various centres of 
the trade. Elbeuf is the great market of the western department, and 
after it comes Sedan, Louviers, Vienna, Lisieux, Vire, and Bischwiller. 
Generally the large manufacturers sell their products directly to large 
houses of business in Paris and the departments ; the latter send their 
travellers through France and other countries to dispose of the goods. 

"The great mass of the wool used in the making of cloth comes from 
abroad. French wool is principally employed for common fabrics. The 
exi^ort, in 18G5, amounted to 5,500 tons, of an approximative value of 
71,000,000 francs. The annual production of France is about 250,000,000 
francs. 

"The committee of admission of class 30 notice, among the imiirove- 
ments which have taken place in the trade, dui^ing the last 12 years — 



102 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

^'1. The wasliing of wool by maeliineiy. 

^'2. The improvements in the macliines used in the preparation of the 
wool, such as beating, teaseling machines, &c., which allow of the use of 
wool from all sources ; the new system of cards and of looms. 

''3. The almost universal employment of power-looms for weaving 
broadcloths, satins, paletot and fancy cloths. Power-looms with several 
shuttles are yet but little used for weaving fancy cloths. 

"4. In scouring and fulling, the conjunction of steam-engines with 
hydraulic motors, to i)revent the works being brought to a stand-stiU 
during very dry seasons. 

''5. In dressing, the emioloyment of machines in place of hand-beaters 
and mechanical tenter frames." — From the Introduction l)y Vanguelin to 
Class 30. 

In the United States section the principal exhibitors were the Web- 
ster Woollen Mills of Massachusetts, which sent broadcloths, doeskins, 
castors, and muskowa; the l^ational Association of Wool Growers, John 
L.Hayes, secretary 5 and the Mission Woollen Mills, San Francisco, Cali- 
fornia. This establishment made a very fine exhibit of cloths, cassi- 
meres, and flannels, and particularly of blankets. The following des- 
criptive notice of the Mission Woollen Mills in California is extracted 
from the Commercial Review of the Pacific States for 18G6: 

THE MISSION WOOLLEN MILLS. — CALIPOKNIA. 

''The Mission Woollen Mills are located at the head of Mission creek, 
in the southwestern portion of San Francisco. With the exception of a 
very large two-story stone warehouse, used for the storage of wool, all 
the mill buildings are of wood. The grounds used comprise some 10 
acres, a portion of which, probably three acres, is covered Avith the dif- 
ferent buildings. The mills were first put in operation in the autumn of 
1860, starting with a capacity equal to the employment of 40 men. The 
works have been increased until, at the present time, running night and 
day, they employ 400 operatives, 300 of them being Chinese. In 1865, 
these mills consumed 1,200,000 i)ounds of wool, which was manufactured 
into 32,000 jyaim blankets, nearly 500,000 yards of flannels, and over 
100,000 yards of cloths, cassimeres, tweeds, and cloakings. Since then 
the machinery has been increased, and the estimated consumption of 
wool for 1866 is set down at 1,900,000 pounds. The business sagacity of 
the proprietors of these mills has made them keenly alive to improve- 
ments in machinery, Avith which they have supplied their works as soon 
as knoAvn. The present working power of the mills consist of two engines, 
each of 150 liorse-poAver, Avhich drive 11 sets of cards, 4,000 spindles, and 
50 broad-poAA^er looms, Avhich Avill be soon largely increased. To giA^e 
some idea of the extent of their manufacture, Ave may say that, during 
the mouth of August, there were completed from the raAv avooI to the 
finislied cloths 15,270 yards cassimeres, tweeds, and cloakings, 35,475 
yards flannels, and 6,270 pairs blankets. The Mission Woollen Mills 



CLOTHING. 103 

were the first on tlie Pacific coast to mannfacture yarieties of woollen 
goods, besides blankets. Their blankets (in common with the Pioneer 
Woollen Mills) have made a repntation for California manufacturers the 
world over, wherever known, they exceeding in fineness of wool and finish 
the best blankets made in Eiu-ope. One feature in the working of these 
mills in San Francisco is the employment of Chinese operatives, who, 
being intelligent and industrious, at low wages, enable successful com- 
petition to be had against white labor in the manufactories of the eastern 
States and Eiu-ope. Without this clieai) labor, mill-owners state that 
they would be unable to manufacture with profit. Yery large quantities 
of goods are shipped to Montana Territory, where they are i)referred to 
the manufactures of eastern mills, which pay less freightage by way of 
the Missouri river.'' 

CLASS 31.— SILK AND SILK MANUFACTURES. 

"The material exhibited in class 31 may be divided into three i)rin- 
cipal sections : silk and yarns, silk tissues, and ribbons. The first section 
includes silkworms' eggs, new and dried cocoons; raw silks; thrown, 
unbleached, and dyed silks, designated by the names of weft, organzine, 
grenadine, &c., for the manufactures of tissues; twisted silks for sewing, 
embroidering, hosiery, trimming, gaipure, and lace, and Avaste and floss 
silk; and these last products carded, combed, and spun into single, 
double, tmsted, unbleached, and dyed yarns. The silk tissues include 
velvets ; plain and figured stuffs for dresses and furniture ; bolting tissues ; 
tissues for men's and women's hats; sarcenet and lutestring for linings; 
I)lain and printed foulards for dresses and handkerchiefs ; shawls, neck- 
erchiefs, and cravats ; crapes and tulles. The ribbons comprise plain and 
figured ribbons; galloon, binding, and trimming for dresses and bonnets. 

"The principal centres of production are: for the spinning and throw- 
ing of fine silk the departments of Ardeche, Drome, Gard, Herault, and 
Yaucluse ; then come those of Isere, Yar, the Lower Aljjs, Ehone, Pouches 
du Ehone, and Tarnet Garonne. The strong silks that are imported raw 
from abroad, and especially from Persia, China, and Japan, are manu- 
factiu^ed in the dei^artments du Phone, Gard, Loire, and Indre et Loire; 
and above all in the departments of Oiseet Ere, from whence the Paris 
manufacturers mostly supply themselves. The principal spinning mills 
for waste silk are in England, Switzerland, and France. For stuffs, 
Lyons and its environs ; then Tours, where the furniture stuffs are prin- 
cipally manufactured. For ribbons, binding, and galloon St. Etienne and 
St. Chamond. There are also a few manufactories in Moselle and Haut 
Ehin. The cocoons used in the French spinning mills were almost 
entirely supplied by the silkworms of the fine breed of France ; but, since 
the year 1863, an almost universal epidemic has successively attacked the 
silkworms in every part of the world. To remedy these disasters eggs 
have been imported from those countries in Europe where the disease had 
not penetrated, and afterwards from the east, to which is due, in a great 



104 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

measiu'e, tlie improved result of the last few yields. Before the invasion 
of the disease, from the year 1846 to 1852, the average yield in France 
was generally valued at 21,000 tons of cocoons, producing 2,000 tons of 
silk, and representing a sum of about 120,000,000 francs. After the 
appearance of the disease the amount fell to one-half, to one-third, to 
one-quarter; and in 1865 they had become reduced to one-fifth of the 
ordinary yields. The average price has risen from four to six francs, 
and has even surpassed the latter sum. The effect of this is, of course, 
to raise the price of the silks, which are employed according to their 
qualities. Thus the silks of France and Italy, and of the Broussa and 
Syrian spinning mills, are used to make the best tissues, plain and figured. 
The silks of Japan, China, Bengal, and Persia are employed, according 
to their sizes and worth, in the manufacture of i:>lain and figured tissues 
of current qualities, in making foulards, and sewing and embroidering 
silks. 

'' Machinery is everywhere rapidly replacing manual labor in the spin- 
ning and working of silks; machines are substituted for hand- work, 
even for twisting and sewing silk, which was formerly doneonly by hand. 
The silk goods, i)roperly so caUed, are always woven by hands. In the 
manufacture of foulards, and of nearly all the stuffs which can be woven 
with raw silk, the power loom has replaced the hand loom for weaving 
as well as for the warping and other i)rocesses. A great many attempts 
have been made to use machinery in the manufacture of the stuffs which 
are woven with i)repared siLk, and they have been successful for the light 
satins, which are dressed, and to a certain extent mth the black silks of 
light quality. At St. Etienne manual labor has been continued' in the 
ribbon trade, while the power loom has been adopted for the galloons and 
bindings. One or two manufacturers in Haut Rhin are using machinery 
for plain ribbon-making with some success. 

''The cocoons are spun and the silk prepared in the south of France 
by Avomen and girls,*who work by the day in workshops belonging to a 
X)rincipal, under the superintendence of foremen. The system is the same 
for the winding off' by machinery, but when the winding is done by 
hand, the people work at home and by the piece. The twisting is gen- 
erally done by men. For the silks, the organization of the workshops 
varies according as the weaving is done in the towns or in the country, 
in private workshoi)s or in manufactories. At Lyons, for examj^le, the 
material prepared for weaving is delivered by a manufacturer to the 
master of a workshop avIio possesses a certain number of looms. This 
latter furnishes the premises, the looms, and all the tools necessary to 
the manufacture ; then, for the hire of the workshop and the looms, he 
retains from the weavers the half of the price of manufacture paid by 
the manufacturer. In the country the manufiicturer treats directly with 
the weavers ; lie furnishes all the implements to the workmen who work 
at home, and i)ays them 55 per cent, on the ])rice given at Lyons. 
The salaries for the work done in manufactories are from 4:0 to 50 per 



CLOTHING. 105 

cent, lower tlian tliose of Lyons, tlie premises being snpplied by tlie 
mannfacturer. Tlie workmen are always paid ])y the piece. The fresh 
cocoons, silks, and waste are sold at the yarious centres of prodnction. 

''Marseilles is the great market for dyed cocoons as well as for the 
silks and waste imx>orted from abroad; Lyons, for the line silks of the 
sonth of France and Italy; Paris, for the foreign strong silks, nnbleached 
and dyed; Paris and Lyons, for the spun waste. As regards the manu- 
factured products, it is Lyons, St. Etienne, and Paris which supjily 
England, America, Germany, Belgium, Pussia, Turkey, Spain, all those 
countries, in a word, which employ silk tissues. The importation of all 
the productions from silkworms' cocoons, raw and thrown silks, floss 
silk, in hanks, and spun, &c., is estimated for the year 1865 at 297,000,000 
francs, and the exportation of the same articles at 126,000,000 francs. 
The importation of silk tissues and floss silk, ribbons included, of all 
productions for tlie year 1865, were upwards of 10,000,000 francs. The 
exportation of the same articles amounted to 400,000,000 francs. 

"The committee of admission for class 31 point out among the 
improvements realized in the silk industry since the year 1855 : — 1. As 
regards sill^s and waste, considerable imi^rovements in the spinning and 
twisting machines: 2. As regards tissues, a more intelligent use of the 
very varied materials which the rarity of our beautiful silks of France 
and Italy have forced us to have recourse to : — 3. The new process of 
dyeing by the application of colors with aniline and fuchshine bases ; new 
processes for printing on warps and foulards; and, finally, the improved 
systems of figuring silks." Report of the Committee of Admission. 

The beautiful fabrics exposed in this class exhibited, perhaps, to the 
best advantage the skill and taste employed in French manufactures, 
relati^'ely, too, in the manufactures of other countries, for there were 
silks from all i^arts of the world. But France unquestionably maintained 
her rank as the foremost among the producers of these attractive 
articles. The exhibition was unusually large and interesting. It com- 
menced with the cocoon and ended with the finest triumphs of the loom. 
Specimens were also shown of vegetable silk i)roduced from a bulb which 
is common at the Cape of Good Hope. Wild silk is abundant in India 
and China. It is produced by an insect like a caterpillar, which forms 
the cocoon in a shrub, yet it does not die there, but escapes and becomes 
a butterfly. Though, in many respects, totally different from the silk- 
worm, the silk is much prized on account of its strength. 

The principal exhibitors of raw silks were France, Algiers, Italy, Aus- 
tria, Spain, Portugal, Eussia, Turkey, India, and Victoria. The spinning 
of silk is becoming more and more a manufactimng industry, and every- 
where large spinning mills are being erected, Avorked by steam power. 
Some of the best specimens in the French department were from Ardeche; 
in the Italian, from Milan. Austria, too, had a good exhibition. The 
Eussian silk is produced in the Caucasus. 

The fertile imagination of French designers, stimulated by the means 



106 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

placed at tlieir disposal in the new colors obtained from aniline and other 
chemical prodncts, has given a fresh impnlse to the silk trade^ and led 
to very beantiful results. In appropriateness of design, happy contrast 
of color, and excellence of fabrication, the French silks were admittedly 
the best on exhibition. 

Switzerland had a good display of light and low-priced silks. They 
were of the simple kinds that find a market everywhere. An excellent 
feature in Swiss silks is the extreme beauty of color, and the fact that 
the lightest and most delicate tints are altogether unaffected by the 
touch of the hand or the imiDuritieg of the atmosphere. 

Italy had a large exhibition, including the famous Genoa velvet, and 
much fine silk brocade and tapestry. 

Austria displayed tapestry silks of great beauty. Spain sent some 
fine specimens from Yalencia and Barcelona. Tunis exhibited good tis- 
sues of silk and silver. India had some rich samples of silk tissues and 
silk with gold and silver. Eussia had some excellent silks, from Moscow ; 
and Prussia and the Zollverein made a fine display of silk velvets and 
ribbons. The British display was good in certain heavy specialties, 
such as moire antiques, «&c., but in other respects it was meagre. A 
novelty was exhibited in this section. It consisted of a material for cur- 
tains, composed of silk and fine threads of glass, woven in the usual 
way, and i)roducing a very charming effect ; it is called tissues de verre. 
In general respects there was a marked inferiority in British silks, and 
a notable falling off since the exhibition of 1862. 

There were two exhibitors in this class from the United States. 

CLASS 32.— SHAWLS. 

^' Class 32 comprises figured shawls of all kinds — that is to say. Cash- 
mere shawls, wooUen shawls; shawls of wool, cotton, and spun silk, 
mixed, and silk shawls. Tlie shaAvl manufacture exists in but three dis- 
tricts of France — Paris, which makes, or causes to be made elsewhere, 
rich, middling, or cheap shawls; Lyons, which i^roduces chiefly shawls 
of moderate and low price; and Mmes, which manufactures cheap shawls 
only. The greater part of the shawls sold in Paris are produced in Pic- 
ardy, chiefly at Fresnoy-le-Grand, at Bohain, and in the environs of the 
latter place. The Parisian makers have always maintained a bona fide 
superiority in the manufacture of rich sha^yls, by means of their taste 
and inventive spirit; and we may say that all the happy innovations 
which have perfected the invention of Jacquard are due to Paris. The 
designers of Paris enjoy a well-earned reputation. Foreign countries 
wliich manufacture sliawls, such as England and Austria, obtain their 
I)atterns and even have them placed on cards in Paris, especially for 
shawls of a certain price. 

''The materials Avhich enter into the manufacture of sliaAvls are: The 
Cashmere hair, which comes by way of Eussia, and is principally obtained 
in Thibet from a peculiar variety of goat 5 wool of various countries, but 



CLOTHING. 107 

particularly of Germany; raw silk, or tlie organzine of the south of 
France; spnn silk, and even cotton. The price of the yarns made with 
these various materials, and used in the shawl manufacture, varies from 
10 to 70 francs the kilogram. The weaving of shawls is performed 
by the Jacquard loom, which has been greatly improved since the time 
of its illustrious inventor. The shawl manufacturers, in the tirst i^lace, 
have their designs produced either in their own establishments or out o^ 
doors. The pattern, once settled, is put on the cards by the designer, 
revised, and handed over to the reader. This latter operation, which is 
generallj^ performed by special workmen, consists in translating, as it 
Avere, from the design-card to the cards Of the machine, each of which 
represents one of the little squares of the former and each of the colors 
which has to be produced in the loom. For the weaving, the workman 
or the foreman receives the warp, dyed or i^repared, and also the mate- 
rial for the weft. When the shawl is woven it is handed over to the 
dresser, who cuts it, shears it by mechanical means, and finally washes 
and dresses it. The rich shawl is the type of all the other classes. It 
is generally woven on a warp called cashmere, but composed of a thread 
of Cashmere twisted with a thread of organzine or of raw silk; the weft 
is of pm^e Cashmere, of excellent quality. The manufacturers of rich 
shawls are, and must always necessarily be, the originators of new types 
as regards design and colors; it is upon this condition only that they 
can obtain a remunerative price for their productions. Their novelties 
are usually copied by the producers of inferior shawls, and, finally, by 
the makers of low-priced articles. 

"The persons employed in the shawl manufacture consist of foremen, 
heads of shops, designers, comj^osers, carders, readers, wari^ers, and 
wefters ; a few women are emj)loyed in the weaving shops. The greater 
part of the shawl Ayeavers work at their own houses; they generally 
employ workmen, to whom they give two-thirds of the price they receive 
from the manufacturer. In Paris these master weavers are the propri- 
etors of their looms, but in Picardy they generally x)ossess only the frame- 
work of the loom, and not the Jacquard machinery and accessories. The 
wages of the weavers are not very high. Those who possess their own 
looms may earn, in Paris, from 5 francs to 5 francs 50 centimes per day; 
the under weaver earns from 3 francs 50 centimes to 4 francs per day; 
the boys and girls employed as assistants earn from 1 franc to 1 franc 
50 centimes per day. 

''The shawl manufacturer sells directly to the retail dealer, who sells 
the shawls again in the same state in which he receives them. The prices 
of French shawls are very various ; they range from as low as 12 francs 
to the most elevated rates; certain long shawls, for example, sell for 
1,000 francs, and square shawls from 400 to 500 francs. The export trade 
is carried on through the medium of commission agents, or directly with 
the representatives of foreign houses, who come over and buy in the 
markets of Paris, Lyons, and i^imes, and sometimes, also, by travellers 



108 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

representing tlie producers abroad. The value of the shawl trade in 
France may be estimated at 20,000,000 francs per annum. Paris alone 
furnishes about 15,000,000 francs' worth, and sells nearly a quarter of 
this amount to foreign countries, especially to IsTorth America, Belgium, 
Germany, and England. Yery i)romising attempts have been made, 
since 1855, to substitute paper for cardboard in the pattern, which would 
make a notable reduction in the heavy expense of reading, in order to 
weave by steam-power a stuff which would rival, in relief and color, the 
shawl of India.'' — Translation of the re]^ort of Mr. fferhert^jr., member of 
the committee of admission of class 32. 

The shawl is, perhaiDS, the most universal article of dress in the world, 
and, from its extreme beauty, is an object of admiration in all countries. 
It is the perfection of eastern skill, and years were often consumed in 
the manufacture of a single cummerbund or scarf for the waist. Shawls 
were intended for the male sex, but the fairer portion of creation quickly 
appropriated an article which possessed such manifest attractions. In 
the east the shawl is still a principal article of dress — -on the head 
as a turban, and over the head as a hoodj twisted round the neck, 
folded round the shoulder, or wrapped round the waist as a girdle j at 
times forming the entire dress, and at other times being but an adjunct 
of luxury, falling in graceful folds on the i^erson; in every way it is suit- 
able, becoming, and popular. The shawl used for the turban is of extreme 
length, often as much as 60 yards. 

The finest shawls are still made, as of yore, in the beautiful valley of 
Cashmere, the Oriental Eden, which is shut out by precipitous mountains 
from aU surrounding countries. The Oashmerian is industrious, intelli- 
gent, and lively. It is only in Cashmere that production is organized 
on principles nearly akin to the economical plan of Europe. The shawl 
is the glory and pride of the country, nearly the entire population being 
engaged in its production. The goats of Thibet, from which tremendous 
steeps separate it on the north, supply the silky wool which alone is used 
in the tissue; none other can surpass — none has yet equalled — it in soft- 
ness. The downy substance found next the skin, and below the thick 
hair, is the part employed; it is of exquisite fineness. So jealous is the 
Maharajah of Cashmere to maintain his reputation, that he has recently 
taken steps to i^revent any deterioration in the quality of the shawls 
manufactured. The Indian display of these articles Avas exceedingly 
fine, and of great value. 

]^ext in interest and importance were the French imitations of the 
Cashmere shaAvls — ^the most beautiful tissue which mere machinery has 
yet produced. The machinery itself is one of the triumphs of human 
ingenuity, producing in a few days what in the valley of Cashmere 
would take years to produce. The French Cashmere has none of the 
softness of the Indian; it has a smooth, firm texture, hard and cloth- 
like to the touch, without the knottiness of the hand- worked Cashmerian, 
and the folds which it makes are more angular; but the designs are very 



CLOTHING. 109 

beantiful and the colors exceedingiy brilliant and varied. In the latter 
respect/ it may be doubted if France lias not already surpassed her 
eastern rival. There was a magnificent dis])lay of thesd shawls. 

Austria is also famous for its imitations of Cashmere, and made an 
excellent display. There is more regularity and clearness in the x)atterns, 
but the colors are neither so harmonious nor so good. Prussia and Eng- 
land also exhibited extensively in this class. 

There were three American exhibitors. 

CLASS 33.— LACE, NET, EMBEOIDERY, AND TRIMMINGS. 

The products comprised in this class form four distinct groups: 1. 
Lace made by hand, with bobbins, and with needles, including Alengon 
point, white and black lace, guipiu'e, and Chantilly, Mirecoiu-t, and Puy 

lace. 

2. Plain, figured, and embroidered net and its derivatives, comi^rising 
machine-made silk and woollen lace, known by the name of French tulle, 
and net of Yalenciennes, India, Lama, &c. -, white silk blond j i)lain and 
figured silk net, and cotton guipure for upholstery. 

3. Hand and machine-made embroidery on various tissues ; embroidery 
on civil and military uniforms j church embroidery, and embroidery in 
silk and wool on canvas. 

4. Trimmings of all kinds, for upholstery, religious and military orna- 
ments, men's and ladies' garments, carriages and liveries, and fancy mis- 
cellaneous articles. 

Almost every civilized country in the world produces the article called 
lace — the most difiicidt and delicate result of skilled labor. There are, 
however, only two or three countries that have given any original impulse 
to the trade. The others have simply followed in the trains of events, 
taking what had been done as a model, and imitating it to the best advan- 
tage. To two nations — France and Belgium — belongs the credit of pros- 
ecuting this trade with vigor. The laces of Alengon and Brussels are of 
so comx^licated a nature that each process is assigned to a different lace 
maker, who works only at her special department. Formerly a piece of 
Alengon lace would i)ass through eighteen hands before comjiletion ; the 
number is now somewhat diminished. Yalenciennes lace is also of most 
elaborate workmanship ; the pattern and ground are made together, ^ith 
the same thread on the same pillow. One exhibited with the lace in 
progress had no fewer than 1,200 bobbins. 

There is a legend regarding the introduction of this manufactiu'e into 
Flanders. A poverty-stricken but pious young girl was djdng of love 
for a young man whose wealth precluded all hopes of marriage. One 
night, as she. sat weeping at her sad fate, a beautiful lady entered the 
cottage, and, mthout saving a word, placed on her knee a green cloth 
cushion, with its bobbins filled with the fine thread which on autumn 
evenings float in the air, and which the people call '^fils de la Vierge.''^ 
The lady, though of romantic bearing, was a practical manufacturer. 



110 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. . 

She sat down in silence, and with her nimble fingers tanght the unhappy 
maiden how to make all sorts of patterns and complicated stitches. As 
daylight approached the maiden had learned her art, and the mysterious 
visitor disappeared. The i)rice of her lace soon made the poor girl rich. 
She married the man of her choice, and, surrounded by a large family, 
lived happy and rich, for she had kept the secret for herself. One even- 
ing when the little folk were playing round her knee, by the fireside, and 
her husband sat fondly watching the happy group, the lady suddenly 
made her appearance among them. Her bearing was distant j she seemed 
stern and sad, and this time addressed her i^rotege in a trembling voice. 
" Here,^' she said, ^' you enjoy peace and abundance, while without are 
famine and trouble. I helped you ; you have not helped yoiu^ neighbors. 
The angels weep for you and turn away their faces." So the next day 
the woman arose, and, going forth with a green cushion and its bobbins 
in her hands, went from cottage to cottage, offering to all who would be 
taught to instruct them in the art she had herself miraculously learned. 
So they also became rich, and Belgium became famous for this manufac- 
ture. 

The most recent improvement in the production of lace is the intro- 
duction of shaded tints in the flowers and patterns, giving them the relief 
of a pictiu^e. This eifect is produced by varying the application of the 
two stitches used in making the flowers — the " toile," Avhich forms the 
close tissue, and the ^' grille," employed in the more open part of the pat- 
tern. The system is successfully ai)plied to the laces of France and Bel- 
gium, but it is in France that it has been adopted ^ith the greatest suc- 
cess. 

The species of lace which is peculiarly French is the '^ point d'Alen§on," 
properly the '^ point de France," the manufacture of which was intro- 
duced by Colbert to avoid the annual importation of lace from Italy and 
Flanders, which in his day was employed in the dress of both sexes. A 
fine and very early specimen of this lace was exhibited. It was a piece 
of a flounce about two and a half feet long, displaying exquisite design 
and workmanship. It belonged in the day of its prime to the celebrated 
Madame de Pompadour. 

The exhibition of modern French lace was of the highest order. Alen- 
gon maintained its rei)utation, and the black pillow lace of Bayeux was 
unrivalled in elegance and beauty. A dj:ess of the former material, con- 
sisting of two flounces and trimmings, was shown, the cost of which was 
85,000 francs, or $17,000 in gold. A ''point" or half-shawl by the same 
maker was estimated at 10,000 francs. 

Belgium, as a lace-producing country, is the inost formidable rival of 
France. It was diflicult to say which nation shone to the greatest advan- 
tage, but perhaps in delicate manipulation of design and ready and gxace- 
ful taste the French makers were a little ahead of their energetic and 
intelligent neighbors. Belgium had a magnificent display of her manu- 
factures, Brussels and Grammont, to which must still be added Mecklin, 



CLOTHING. Ill 

the prettiest and lightest of its fabrics, but the fashion for which has died 
away, and there is little made at the i)resent time. The si)ecimens in 
some cases were of great value, and all displayed the highest order of 
workmanship. 

After the productions of France and Belgium, there was little to 
admke in the lace exhibition of other countries. England had some 
good samples of Honiton lace, but the patterns were heavy and inartistic, 
and detracted materially from the excellence of the workmanship. 

Nottingham and Saint Pierre-les-Paris are the principal seats of the 
bobbin, net, and machine-made lace manufactures. Since the api)lica- 
tion of the Jacquard cards to the making of lace, many imitations of 
great beauty and very low price have been produced. The Calais manu- 
facturers exhibited imitations of every kind of lace, cotton, silk, and 
mohair 5 Valenciennes, Cluny, colored laces, blondes, white and black, 
silver and gold. The manufacturers of Nottingham exhibited many 
admirable articles of the same character, and Belgium maintained her 
pre-eminence, closely pressed by Lyons, in the well-known article of tulle. 

No i)articular nationalities are concerned in the production of embroi- 
deries and trimmings, of which the infinite variety almost exceeded enu- 
meration. There were specimens from almost every quarter of the globe. 
Germany, perhaps, pays more attention to embroidery. There are gov- 
ernment schools for teaching the art, and the frugal peasants of the 
mountainous regions practice it as a means of livelihood. Colored embroi- 
dery comes mainly from the east. In the matter of trimmings France is 
the centre of the trade, and sent a large disi)lay to the Exposition. 

PRODUCTION IN FRANCE, 

The following complete resume of the productions in this Class, in 
France, is from the translation of the Introduction to the Class by Felix 
Aubry, President of the Committee of Admission. 

LACE. 

"Lace is generally made in the country ; it takes the name of the 
toAvn which is the central market, and the principal seats of its produc- 
tions are : 1. Alen9on, where the magnificent 'point a Lhiiguille^'' (made 
with needles,) known by the name of 'points de France j'^ are made. 
These laces are sometimes veritable works of art. 

" 2. Chantilly, Bayeux and Caen, whose products are similar, and 
include black silk laces of large dimension for dresses, flounces, shawls, 
and veils. This manufacture, particularly at Bayeux, has been brought 
to the highest perfection. 

" 3. Lille and Arras, where pillow lace is made of excellent quality, 
but is httle used in the present day. 

''4. Bayeux, which fiu^nishes that very durable sort of lace known as 
Yalenciennes. 



112 ' PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

^' 5. Mirecourt, (Yosges,) celebrated for its new creations j tlie produc- 
tions from tliis locality^ specially manufactured according to the exigen- 
cies of fasliiouj are much sought after by the general pubhc and imitated 
largely in foreign countries. 

^'6. Auvergne, where the Puy laces and guipures are made at very low 
prices ; the manufacture of this descrix^tion of lace employs a very large 
number of hands, and the amount produced is enormous. 

^' All the raw materials used in textile fabrics are employed in this 
manufacture, and are spun specially for it. The flax yarn comes from 
Lille ', the cotton from the north of France and from England. Lyons 
furnishes white and black silk yarn, as also the gold and silver thread ; 
the woollen yarn (goat's hair and mohair) is spun at Bradford. The 
price of the raw material amounts to from six to twenty per cent, of the 
value of the production. Pillow lace is made on a sort of frame, very 
light and simple in construction, and which is held on the knees of the 
lace-maker. The shape of this pillow has varied little for the last 300 
years, and is called a ' coussin or carreau f it is invariably the property 
of the workwoman. 

''• The total number of lace-makers is estimated at 200,000 women and 
girls. They gain, on an average, 1 franc 25 centimes per day ; some who 
are particularly skilful and industrious earn as much as 3 francs 50 
centimes for 10 hours' hard work. Lace-makers are for the most part peas- 
ant women, who all, without exception, work in their own homes, often 
quitting their pillows and babes to attend to household duties, or to work 
in the helds. Lace making has the advantage of being carried on at 
home, and therefore not depriving agriculture of too many able, hands. 
French lace is sold at all markets — to the United States, the Brazils, 
Kussia, Germany, Italy, Great Britain, the East, and to India. Paris is 
the principal centre of consumi)tion. 

'' The annual production of this trade is valued at 100,000,000 francs, 
but it is very difficult to arrive at any precise calculation, as lace is not 
only sold as a simple production, but is used in so many diflerent ways 
in the several departments of trade. We may note among the recent 
improvements the invention of many new tinted designs and stitches, 
as also the i)roduction of that thick kind of lace, mth the pattern in high 
relief, which imitates, at a comparatively low price, the old Venetian 
point, as well as that of Flanders and Raguse. 

NET. 

^' Saint Pierre-les- Calais, and Calais, are the principal centres of the 
cotton net and silk blonde manufactories ; plain, embroidered, figured, 
and damask silk nets are made at Lyons; figured and plain net for 
upholstery, at Lille ; Saint (^uentin and Incliy produce white cotton net, 
])lain and figured; Amiens supplies machine-made lace in silk and 
mohair, (goat's hair.) Cotton, silk, and wool are employed in the manu- 
facture of machine-made lace, as also in that of all kinds of net ; the 



CLOTHING. 113 

cotton comes from. Lille, the silk from Lyons and England, and the 
wool from Bradford, where they sncceed in spinning a kilogram of 
goat's hair into 300,000 metres of yarn. Machine-made net and lace is 
generally Avoven in mannfactories by the aid of steam power, acting with 
wonderfid automatical precision. The machinery is very complicated 
and expensive, and represents a value of no less than 25,000,000 francs } 
a gxeat many different systems are adopted, but the most general are 
the pusher, lever, and circular machines. 

'^ The manufacture of net employs about 25,000 hands, both male and 
female. The women earn from 1 franc to 2 francs per day, the men from 
3 francs to 6 francs. The latter alone work at the machinery ; the women 
are occupied in the preparation and arrangement of the raw materials. 
The net trade has made great progress in the last 10 years, thanks to 
the numerous improvements that have taken place in its method of pro- 
duction, and especially to the manufacture by machinery of silk blonde 
and lace. The productions of Calais and Lyons are now in universal 
demand, and the principal markets are the United States, Italy, Ger- 
many, Spain, the East, Lidia, and even England — cotton and silk net, 
blonde and lace, made b^^ machinery being of an infinitely lower j)rice 
than hand-made lace, and is of much more general use ; this section 
of the trade doing business to the amount of about 75,000,000 francs, 
yearly. Among the most recent improvements, we may point out the 
wonderful imitations of real silk blonde, the j)roduction of very exquis- 
ite silk and woollen lace, and numerous modifications in the machinery 
which permit the attainment of great variety of effects and beauty of 
detail. 

EMBROIDERY. 

'' Embroidery is carried on in all parts of France, and the chief cen- 
tres of production may be divided into four principal groups : 

^^ 1. White embroidery for clothing and upholstery comes from the 
departments of Yosges, Meurthe, Meuse, Moselle, Haute-Saone, Ehone, 
and Calvados, and also Paris. 

'' 2. Gold and silver embroidery, artistic and fancy embroidery for 
military uniforms, church ornaments and vestments, upholstery and 
other garments, are made in Paris and Lyons. 

''3. The principal seat of production for that embroidery in silk and 
wool called tapestry work is Paris, and the departments of Eure, Yonne, 
Lot, Doubs, &c. 

" 4. Tar are is especially celebrated for its large articles of upholstery, 
such as curtains, &c., embroidered on net and muslin. 

" Embroidery is, so to speak, the raising of one fabric on another ; a 
multitude of different kinds of articles are used to embroider with, such 
as straw, jet, beads, and gold and silver thread ; but cotton, silk, and 
wool, are those most commonlj^ emi)loyed. Embroidery is prepared by 
hand and by machinery ; the former is worked merely on the fingers, on 
Sue 



114 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

canvas, or on tambour frames. For braiding tlie sewing machine is 
much. used. Within the last six years embroidery has been worked by 
machinery, and the new embroidering machines, though still rare in 
France, (about 100 having been erected,) have superseded hand- work in 
many cases. The number of women and girls employed at embroidery 
in France is estimated at 100,000 ; they all work at their own homes. 
There are but few workshops, and the work done there is confined to the 
production of special articles. The wages of the workwomen are very 
variable j those who do the artistic description of embroidery with gold 
and silver thread earn from 3 to 5 francs a day 5 the others from 1 to 2 
francs. 

'-'• Paris is the principal centre of this trade, and the most important 
manufactiu^ers have aE. a depot there. French embroidery is prized for 
the beauty of its manufacture and the novelty of the design. It is 
exported to the United States, Italy, the east, Eussia, and British India. 
The importance of this trade, on account of the great number of hands 
employed, is considerable. The value of the raw materials used, and 
even that of the fabrics on which the embroidery is done, is often infe- 
rior to the value of the workmanship, so that it is impossible to accu- 
rately separate the value of the workmanship from that of the manufac- 
tured material on which it is based, and thus arrive at a correct estimate 
of the Avorth of the entire product in a commercial point of AT.ew. How- 
ever, the wages of the workwomen amount yearly to a sum of more than 
30,000,000 francs. Among the latest improvements we must distinguish 
the new embroidery machines, which wiU more than double the produc- 
tion ; the invention of new stitches for gold and silver embroidery, and 
that of tinted and shaded needle- work embroidery. 

TRIMMINGS. 

'•^ Lyons is celebrated for its gold and silver military gimps, cords, and 
trimmings ; St. Etienne for its fashionable trimmings for dresses and 
outer garments, and for all those fancy articles which are created and 
changed with the fashion. At Mmes, St. Chaumond, and Eouen may 
be found excellent manufactures of cord, braid, and elastic fabrics ; but 
Paris is the active and imi3ortant centre of the trade. For trimmings 
all the textile fabrics are employed, principally wool, silk, and cotton, and 
sometimes straw, gold, silver, aluminium, &c. Each different descrip- 
tion of trimmings demands a si)ecial kind of manufacture 5 some are 
made with the needle, and some on looms of high and low warp, with 
and without Jacquards 5 the more ordinary productions are made by 
means of steam machinery. The manufticture of trimmings occupies 
more than 30,000 hands, and, after that of lace-making and embroidery, 
is the trade which employs the largest number of women and children. 
The wages are variable, as they depend not only on the skill of the work- 
man, but upon the nature of the work. Men earn from three to eight 
fiancs per day, and the women and children from one to three francs. 



CLOTHING. 115 

This brancli of industry, very considerable from the great number of 
hands employed and the vast capital it represents, is very prosiierons at 
the present time. AU the foreign manufacturers buy the new designs 
from Paris, for the pur^^ose of copying them. The exportation is very 
large, princiiJaUy to ^orth and South America, India, the East, England, 
Eussi^, Spain, and Italy. The entire production is supposed to exceed 
100,000,000 francs yearly. The chief improvements we have to point out 
are: great improvements in the different kinds of looms, which has 
much increased the production; considerable diminution in price, and 
an enormous development of the whole trade." 

CLASS 34.— HOSIERY, UNDER-OLOTHING, AND MINOR ARTI- 
CLES. 

The productions exhibited in this class formed twelve distinct groups : 

I. Hosiery; 2. Buttons; 3. Braces, garters, and buckles; 4. Gloves; 
5. Eans ; 6. Umbrellas and parasols ; 7. Canes and whij^s ; 8. Cravats ; 
9. Shirts; 10. Ladies' and children's ready-made under-clothing; 

II. Stays ; 12. Petticoats and crinolines. 

Full and entertaining iiarticidars of the trades interested in these 
branches are given below. They are extracted from the official cata- 
logue, and relate to France. Hosiery was largely represented by other 
nations. France was rich in fancy articles, such as ladies' sdk stockings 
mth open lacework and embroidery, mittens, scarfs, and veils. England 
excelled in articles of a more substantial make, but in cotton and woollen 
hosiery she was without a rival. In almost all the other groups France 
maintained the first position, and was quite undisturbed by competition.. 
There were four American exhibitors in this class. 

HOSIERY. 

"Hosiery is made in almost every part of France, it being manufac- 
tured in no less than 500 communes, but principally in the departments 
of the Aube, Marne, Oise, Somme, Gard, Herault, Seine, Calvados, and 
Upper Garonne. 

The textile fabrics employed are principally cotton and wool^ while 
silk, floss silk, flax, and the down of the Thibet goat (Cashmere) are 
used, though less generally. The cotton employed in the manufacture 
of hosiery is carded, combed, and spun in France, and is derived chiefly 
from America, Egypt, and India. The price of the cotton varies 
according to quality: that of India (No. 10 to 24) is worth from 4 francs 
to 5 francs 50 centimes the kdogTam. That of America and Egypt 
(No. 16 to 150) from 7 francs to 36 francs the kilogram. The wool is 
furnished by France, England, Russia, Italy, Germany, Australia, Spain, 
and Africa, and is carded or combed and spun in France. The price 
varies from 4 francs 50 centimes to 20 francs, according to the munber, 
of 6 to 80,000 meters to the kilogram. 

The silk is spun, but the cocoons are obtained chiefly from the Levant, 



116 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

and also from Italy and France. The common qualities are wortli from 
75 francs to 90 francs tlie kilogram. The finer qualities from 120 to 
130 francs. Floss silk is spun in France and Switzerland. In 1866 the 
price per kilogram of the more ordinary sorts varied from 25 to 36 
francs, and for the superior qualities from 45 to 60 francs. 

Flax thread is very little used now, and that only by some few manu- 
facturers at Pas-de-Oalais. It is sold at from 3 to 18 francs the kilo- 
gTam. 

Cashmere goat's hair is but seldom employed. The finer qualities 
are worth from 26 to 60 francs the kilogram, and the more ordinary 
from 18 to 20 francs. The use of the hair of the rabbit has been entirely 
discontinued of late years. 

I^early all the machines for making hosiery are worked by hand ; how- 
ever, steam machinery is being gradually introduced into some of the 
principal French manufactories, and hand machiaes are, for the most 
part, employed by those men who work at their own homes. Knitting 
is no longer required, except for some few fancy articles, and then it is 
always performed by women, who work at home. 

In France the small manufactories of hosiery are very numerous, 
while there are but few large ones. The men and Avomen who work in 
their own houses — which form by far the greater proportion, being 90 
I)er cent, of the entire number emx)loyed in the trade — earn 30 iDcr cent, 
less than those who are occupied in the factories. Forty-five per cent, 
of the employes are women, their occupation consisting in sewing the 
seams, embroidery, getting up the various articles, and knitting and 
crocheting different fancy goods. 

The greater part of the manufacturers have depots in Paris, which 
constitutes it the principal market for French hosiery. The town of 
Troyes is the chief manufacturing centre, and, at the same time, an 
important market. About half the home trade is carried on directly 
between the manufacturer and retail vender, the other half through the 
medium of wholesale houses. Exportation is mostly undertaken by 
commission merchants. The annual production amounts to about 
100,000,000 francs, of which 15,491,722 francs are exported. As much 
as 549,788 francs of hosiery was imported into France this year. Great 
progxess has been made in this branch of industry since 1865. 

Firstly, as to the means of i)roduction, we must mention the automatic 
rectilinear looms, of different kinds, and both of English and French 
invention, which allow a workman to produce at one time six stockings, 
and even twelve, of different fineness, whereas the old-fashioned small 
machines only made one at a time. Also, the circular machines made 
according to a new system, of every size, and by which no less than 
thirty rows can be woven with one revolution of the machine 5 and 
again, the machine for taking up the stitches and sewing the stockings 
in the greatest perfection. Secondly, the productions themselves are of 
a much more equal quality, and made witli greater care. The amount 



CLOTHING 117 

exported lias miicli augmented this brancli of the trade, being now car- 
ried on to a very large extent. The number of mills where yarn is pre- 
pared for working hosiery has greatly increased. The salaries of the 
workmen have risen about 30 per cent, since 1855. 

BUTTONS. 

"Paris is the principal centre of this industry. Buttons of all sorts are 
manufactured there in metal, silk, mother-of-pearl, horn, enamel, and also 
those fancy kinds which serve to ornament outer garments. The depart- 
ment of the Oise is the seat of manufacture for buttons in shell, mother- 
of-pearl, vegetable ivory, bone, ivory, &c, besides silk buttons, which 
are one of the most staple productions of France, and which are exclu- 
sively made in this department. China buttons are made in great quan- 
tities at Briare, in the department of Loiret, at Montereau, Seine- 
et-Marne, and at Creil, Oise. As to the other i)laces, where only horn, 
mother-of-pearl, and bone buttons are manufactured, they are of so little 
importance, comparatively, that we shall not make any i)articular men- 
tion of them. 

The raw materials made use of in this branch of industry may be 
divided into five sections : gold, silver, aluminium, German silver, copper, 
tin, zinc, iron, steel, &c.; silk, wool, linen, cotton, velvet, and various 
other fabrics 5 china, enamel, glass, crystal, beads, imitation stones, 
mosaics, &c. The amount of metals used annually in the first series 
may be estimated at 2,500,000 kilograms, representing a sum of 
4,000^000 francs. The silk and other fabrics of series No. 2 may be val- 
ued at about the same amount. The raw materials of the third series, 
nearly all derived from the tropics, are enijDloyed to an extent of 3,000,000 
kilogTams, exceeding 5,000,000 francs in value. The annual consump- 
tion of horns, hoofs of mammalia, and the other articles of the fourth 
series, is not less than 1,500,000 francs' worth; while the glass and china 
manufactures of the last series are entirely of French manufacture, and 
represent a yearly value of 2,500,000 francs. 

Steam and hydraulic machinery has come into more general use since 
1855, and is principally employed for cn.tting out the raw materials, and 
for stampmg metal buttons. The other kinds are made by hand, with 
the help of small machines and tools. Certain kinds of silk buttons are 
the only ones made entirely by hand. 

The number of hands employed in France in the manufacture of but- 
tons is 22,0005 c>f which 8,000 are men, 10,000 women, and 4,000 chUdren, 
some of whom work at home and others in manufactories. The wages 
may be estimated at 4 francs 25 centimes per day for the men, 1 franc 
85 centimes for women, and 1 franc 10 centimes for children. 

All kinds of French buttons are ex^Dorted to Great Britain, Italy, 
Eussia, and North America, while South America, Mexico, and China 
buy a large quantity of the common sorts. The annual loroduction may 
be valued at 45,000,000 francs, of which three-foiu'ths are sent to foreign 



118 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

countries. This braucli of industry, wliicli was comparatively insignifi- 
cant thirty years ago, has made extraordinary progress since 1855, and 
Ave may safely say that France furnishes to the whole civilized world by 
far the greater part of the button manufacture. 

BRACES, GARTERS, AND BUCKLES. 

''The manufacture of garters and braces has been created in France 
since 1834. From Paris, where it was first established, it was removed 
to Eouen, where it now almost exclusively flourishes. Buckles in copper 
are priucipally made in Paris; those in steel at Eancourt, (Ardennes.) 
The raw materials consist of cotton, India-rubber, and silk for orna- 
mentation. 

For these articles, buckles are chiefly manufactured in copper and 
steel; the metals employed in making bucldes for trousers, waistcoats, 
and shoes, are steel, iron, copper, zinc, lead, tin, &c. Eouen employs 
relatively but a smaller number of hands in the manufacture of garters 
and braces ; all the work is done by machinery. In Paris, hand labor 
predominates. For the manufacture of buckles by means of cutters, 
machinery has, since 1836, quite replaced hand labor. The workmen and 
apiDrentices who weave the braces are employed in manufactories, while 
the women who mount them work at their own homes. The men earn 
5 francs 50 centimes per day, and the women 3 francs. The api)rentices 
are not paid, but are provided with board and lodging. The greater part 
of the men who make buckles work in manufactories ; but the produc- 
tions are finished off by workmen in their own homes. The men's wages 
vary from 2 francs 50 centimes to 5 francs ; the women's from' 1 franc 
50 centimes to 2 francs 50 centimes, and that of the children from 75 
centimes to 2 francs. 

French braces and garters are exported to nearly every part of the 
world; principally to England, Eussia, and America. The buckles made 
in France compete advantageously with those of the best foreign manu- 
facturers. The annual i:>roduction of braces and garters in France 
amounts to about 10,000,000 francs in value. The manufecture of bucldes 
in Paris alone amounts to 2,000,000 francs, of which one-third is exported. 
Among the improA^ements of the last 15 years Ave must mention the 
AA'^eaAdng machine of Mr. Fromage, producing 80 dozen pairs of braces per 
day, of which the price of manufacture does not amount to more than six 
centimes per dozen ; also the iuA^en tion of the hygienic braces, which differ 
from the other kinds, inasmuch as the stress of the elastic fabric is 
entirely removed from the shoulders, and only bears upon the loAver part 
of the braces. Lastly, the common kind of buckles have been replaced 
by those called a x)ont^ of a much more couA^enient form. 

KID GLOVES. 

''The principal manufactures of kid gloves are to be found in Paris, 
Grenoble, Chaumont, and St. Junien, (haute Vienne;J the lambskin 



CLOTHING. 119 

gloves are made chiefly at Luneville and IS'iort, and those in deer-skin 
and chamois-leather (called castor) at Eennes. Many provincial towns 
make gloves for local use, as Lyons, ^N'ancy, Strasburg, and Eochefort. 
The manufacture of gloves employs kid, lamb, and sheep-skins, as well 
as the skins of the lamb, the deer, and the reindeer, (dressed chamois 
fashion.) Almost all these skins are procured in Europe j but the finest 
are to be met within the centre of France. The best kids come from 
Switzerland, the north of Italy, Tyrol, Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Silesia; those of northern Eiu^ope are, in general, very inferior. 

The skins are first tanned, then dyed and cut out to make gloves. 
Dressing by means of machinery has been tried, but does not seem to 
have succeeded for any but the thickest kind of skin. The '' dollage," or 
process of equalizing the thickness of the skin, is done either by hand or 
by means of stone cylinders moved by steam. The fingers are divided 
by means of dies moved by a screw. The remainder of the processes are 
performed entirely by hand. The dyeing of the skins is likewise a 
manual occupation. Two sorts of dyes are used for skins ; that which is 
applied with a brush, and that into which skins are dipped. After the 
skins have been dressed, they are sorted and appropriated to the use for 
which they seem most fitting; then comes the dollage, the cutting, &g. 

The working tanners earn daily, in the Paris workshops, from 4 francs 
50 centimes to 5 francs ; and in the provinces from 3 francs to 3 francs 50 
centimes. The ]^alissoneurs^ who work by the piece, can earn as much as 
6 to 8 francs a day in Paris, and from 5 to 6 francs in the pro\T^nces. 
The wages of those who dye the prepared skins, and who also work by 
the i)iece, amount, in Paris, to 5 or 6 francs per day; and in the provinces 
to 4 or 5 francs. Skins prepared in the chamois style are chiefly manu- 
factured in Milhau and Mort, and the hands employed in this process 
receive about the same amount of wages as the tanners. 

The glove trade occuiiies in France about 50,000 or 55,000 work-x)eople, 
of whom 40,000 or 45,000 are women. Those men who cut out and pre- 
pare the gloves, and who work in their own dwellings and in the work- 
shops of their employers, can earn from 6 to 8 francs per day, and even 
as much as 10 francs ; the wages in the provinces may be estimated at one- 
fifth less. Some workwomen, esi3ecially those that cut out, earn from 3 
to 4 francs; others from 2 francs 50 centimes to 3 francs. The women 
who sew and stitch the gloves, and who work principally in the country, 
seldom earn more than 1 franc per day. 

The productions are sold directly to retail vendors for home consump- 
tion, and to commission merchants for exportation. Some of the prin- 
cipal glove manufacturers have established houses in the principal foreign 
markets, especially in England and America. The number of gloves 
made up annually in France amount to 1,800,000 or 2,000,000 dozen i^airs, 
which represents a sum of nearly 70,000,000 francs. With the gloves of 
first quality the materials are worth about two-thirds of the value of the 
production; the i)rice of manufacture, the general expenses, and the profits 



120 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

account for the otlier tliird. The materials of the second and third quali- 
ties cost a little less, and the manufacture and general expenses a little 
more in proportion. At least two-thirds of the produce of the glove trade 
are exported; England and America consume nearly the whole of this 
amount. The French glove trade has made no marked progress since 
1855 ; but it still remains immeasurably superior to all foreign manufac- 
tures. 

FANS. 

"Fans are composed of two parts: the mountings are made in certain 
communes of the department of Oise, and the upper j)art in Paris ; and 
it is there also that the two are joined together, so that Paris may be 
considered the principal manufacturing centre. The raw materials used 
in the making of fan-mountings are : 

1. White mother-of-pearl, called poulette, which comes from Madagas- 
car, and costs nine francs the kilogram ; another sort of white mother- 
of-pearl, called Franche, which comes from the same place, but costs 11 
or 12 francs the kilogram; black mother-of-pearl, brought from Sid- 
ney, and sold at seven francs the kilogram -, oriental mother-of-pearl, and 
the green delotide kind, which is found in Japan, and is worth about 35 
centimes the shell; the Burgot variety, found also in Japan, and worth 
85 centimes the shell; brown tortoise-shell, from India and China, and 
light-colored tortoise-shell, the former costing 60 francs the kilogTam 
and the latter 200 francs; also ivory, sold at 40 francs the kilogram; 
and lastly, bone, largely used for fan mountings, and furnished by Paris, 
Bordeaux, and Rouen, at 50 centimes the kilogram. 

2. Oriental woods — ebony, mahogany, rose, satin, and lemon-tree 
wood, and in general all the hard woods of Africa, Ceylon, and Mada- 
gascar, which cost, on an average, 60 centimes the kilogram ; sandal 
wood, which comes from Japan, and which is worth 2 francs 25 centimes 
the kilogram. 

3. Indigeneous woods, such as plane tree, acacia, beam tree, wild 
cherry, plum, apple, and pear tree, cost from 15 to 20 centimes the kilo- 
gram. 

The materials of which the coverings of the fans are made vary accord- 
ing to taste and fashion; silk, crape, la^vn, paper, feathers, and kid, 
are used. 

Machinery has replaced hand- work in the cutting of the mountings, 
except for ivory and tortoise-shell. Designers make the drawings for 
the fan coverings. These drawings are lithographed or engraved on 
copper, steel, or wood, and then printed, pasted, colored, or painted, 
mounted, bound, edged, spangled, riveted, and examined. Some work- 
men work in shops by the day; all the others work by the piece, at their 
OAvn houses, with their wives and children. Tlie fan trade occupies, in 
France, 4,000 workmen of difterent trades; of which 1,000 are in Paris 
and 3,000 in the department de I'Oise. Workers in bone, ivory, &c.. 



CLOTHING. 121 

gilders, looking-glass workers, j)aper makers, feather moimters, paint- 
ers, embroiderers, goldsmiths, jewellers, engravers, chasers, carvers, &c., 
all combine in the mannfacture of these articles, whether they be plain 
or ornamented, superior or ordinary. The wages of the workmen are, 
on an average, 5 francs a day ; those of the workwomen vary from 2 
francs 50 centimes to 4 francs 50 centimes. 

Paris, [Japan] and China monopolize the fan trade. Spain, Italy, Portu- 
gal, and England are the principal foreign markets in Europe. The Bra- 
zils, Mexico, Havana, St. Thomas, Chili, Peru, Buenos Ayres, and North 
America may be considered merelj^ as tributaries. Some fans are also 
exported to the East Indies, and as far as Manilla; but in those ports 
the rivalry with China for the ordinary articles is maintained with diffi- 
culty. The annual production amounts to 10,000,000 francs, of which 
three-fourths is exported. The progress made in the fan trade since 
1855 consists in the use of mechanical processes for the production of 
current articles and in the more developed application of art to indus- 
try, the improvement in certain mechanical processes, such as (to cite 
but one example) a machine for ornamenting by heat, caj)able of execu- 
ting, on a mounting of two francs, a work which could not be attained 
by hand at any price. 

UMBRELLAS AND PARASOLS. 

The principal centres of production are Paris, Anglers, Bordeaux, and 
some less imiDortant towns of France. For umbreUa and parasol covers 
cotton tissues are employed, which are produced at Rouen, and worth 
from 40 centimes to 1 franc 25 centimes the metre; silk, made at Lyons, 
and worth from 2 to 20 francs ,• and alpaca, imi^orted from England, and 
costing from 1 franc to 3 francs 50 centimes the metre. Parasols are 
ornamented with lace of various kinds, made at Alengon, Puy, and 
Caen, worth from 25 francs to 1,500 francs the cover, or with imitation 
lace, produced at Lyons, Calais, St. Pierre, &c., only costing from 3 
francs to 25 francs. The embroidery and trimmings are made in Paris. 

Colonial woods, of all kinds, only form about one-twentieth i3art of the 
material used in the manufacture of umbrella and x)arasol handles. The 
price of bamboos and laurel wood vary; for bamboos, from 10 to 35 
francs the hundred, and for the laurel from 20 to 50 francs the hundred. 
Algiers supplies the myrtle, of which the prices vary from 20 to 50 
francs the hundred; and Guiana nearly aU the colonial wood, costing 
from 30 to 170 francs the hundred for sticks of 90 centimetres to 1 metre 
in length. The woods of French gTowth are beach, yoke-elm, oak, syc- 
amore, maple, beam tree, hazelwood, wild cherry, cornelian tree, med- 
lar, and holly; the prices vary from 5 to 45 francs the hundred handles, 
ready rounded. Umbrella and parasol handles are made in considerable 
quantities, of various materials, of which the principal, besides woods 
of all kinds and from all parts of the world, are bullock, buffalo, ram, 
and rhinoceros horn; bone, ivory, and tortoise-shell are also emi3loyed in 



122 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

the mamifacture. The prices vary to iufinity : bullock horn from 25 cen- 
times to 1 franc 50 centimes each; bnifalo and ram horn from 50 centimes 
to 3 francs j and rhinoceros horn, ivory, and tortoise-shell from 2 to 100 
francs per piece. The most ordinary prices for these last are from 6 to 
20 francs each. Umbrella and ijarasol frames are made in steel, ratan, 
and whalebone. The steel wire used is worth, according to the size, 
fr-om 1 franc 80 centimes to 2 francs 10 centimes the kilogram, all 
prepared 5 that is to say, drawn, cnt into lengths, and tempered, Ea- 
tan, which is used for common mountings, comes from India. The iDrices 
vary from 1 franc to 1 franc 50 centimes the kilogram, cut, squared, 
turned, pressed, and varnished. Whalebone is becoming exceedingly 
scarce ; its price has risen to 15 francs the kilogram ; that is to say, it 
has tripled during the last quarter of a century. The wood is cut up and 
rounded by machinery; the ornamentation, carving, and varnishing are 
performed by hand. A part of the fr'ames are made by machinery, but 
hand-Avork is employed in the great majority of instances. Sewing ma- 
chines begin to be applied, with great advantage, to the sewing of the 
seams. 

The workmen employed in the workshops receive one-third of the total 
profits ; those who work at home, for others, two-thirds. All the women 
work at home. The average wages for the men are 5 francs per day ; 
those of the women, 3 fr-ancs. 

The trade is principally wholesale, and confined to the dealers in the 
provinces, through the medium of commercial travellers, and dii'ectly to 
those Avho negotiate personally with the manufacturers every half year,^ 
the foreign trade being conducted solely through the medium of exi)ort 
agents. 

The Paris shops treat directly with the producers, the purchases com- 
prising a considerable moiety of the entire trade. Cotton parasols are 
worth from 1 franc 25 centimes to 5 francs ; those in silk from 4 to 40 
francs. Cotton umbrellas are worth from 1 to 10 francs ; those in silk 
from 3 to 150 francs. The principal foreign markets are Spain, Greece, 
Italy, Turkey, Austria, Switzerland, Prussia, Eussia, HoUand, Belgium, 
England, and her dependencies, Asia, Egypt, ^North and South America. 
The umbrella and parasol trade does business, annually, to the amount 
of about 35,000,000 francs. 

Few changes have taken place since 1855 in the manufacturing pro- 
cesses, excepting the introduction of sewing machines. The average 
wages of the workmen, workwomen, and others employed, has risen 
about 20 per cent. 

WALKING STICKS, RIDING AND DRIVING WHIPS. 

Paris is the principal centre of production. Canes, ratans, and stiff 
and flexible bamboos, worth from 10 to 400 francs tlie hundred pieces, 
are imported from British India, China, and Japan. Palm, myrtle, 



CLOTHING. 123 

orange, and locust-tree wood, worth from 40 to 100 francs the hundred 
pieces, come from Algeria. Dog- wood, thorn, oak, elm, ash, and wild 
cherry-tree woods, costing from 10 to 50 francs the hundred i)ieces, are 
produced in France, (Alsace, Lorraine, and Mvernais.) Wlialebone, 
ivory, tortoise-shell j rhinoceros, buffalo, and rams' horns, worth from 90 
centimes to 30 francs the kilogram; gold, silver, brass, white metal, 
gold-plated on copper and silver, jasper, cornelian, lapis lazuli, mala- 
chite, &c. ; cotton, silk, and catgut, are bought in the Paris and Lon- 
don markets. 

All the articles are made by hand, except the plaiting of the whi]3S, 
which is done by machinery. After the moulding of the horn and tor- 
toise-shell, and the laj^ng of tortoise-shell on ram's horn, the x)rincipal 
operations are the planing and varnishing of canes, sto\4ng, cutting and 
carving wood and ivory, chasing and engra^TLng metal. 

The workmen working in shops form a third of the whole number of 
persons engaged in this industry. This does not, however, include the 
women. The work-people who work at their own houses include men, 
women, aud children, and form the other two-thirds. The wages of the 
work-x3eoi)le are very good; the men earn from 3 francs 50 centimes to 7 
j&?ancs, and the women 2 francs 50 centimes to 3 francs. 

The manufacturers sell directly to the retailers in Paris, and to the 
provincial dealers through the mediiim of travellers. The exportation 
is carried on by commission agents. 

Walking sticks are worth from 25 centimes to 100 francs each ; ridmg 
whips from 25 centimes to 50 francs ; and driving whips from 1 to 50 
francs. These articles are exported to all parts of the world. 

The value of the industry, divided between about 60 manufacturers, 
lining in Paris, is between about 3,500,000 and 4,000,000 francs. 

The principal improvements to be noted since 1855 are the employment 
of gas for coloring and dressing the wood, and the use of machines for 
plaiting two whips at a time. Nevertheless, the competition of Germany 
has become serious as regards common and low-priced articles. This 
state of things must be attributed to the rise in wages, which are 8 to 10 
per cent, higher in Paris than a short time since. 

CEAYATS AND SHIKTS. 

This trade originated in Paris, and has greatly developed since 1848. 
It has increased to a large extent, particularly during the last few yeaFS. 
The makers of cravats especially employ silk stuffs, from the lowest to 
the highest prices. The number of work-people occupied can be esti- 
mated at about 10,000, and the average of their daily wages at 2 francs 
50 centimes. 

This industry employs, at the present moment, a considerable number 
of sewing machines ; and the low prices of the articles made render them 
acceptable to aU classes of the poi)ulation. 



124 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Shirt-making for men possesses considerable importance at the present 
moment. It inchides the making of shirts, shirt fronts and collars, waist- 
coats, drawers, flannel bands and shirts, and linen and cotton drawers, 
The cotton stuffs employed in this trade come from the manufactories of 
Mulhouse and Eouen; England, Ireland, and France supply the linen 
fabrics. This industry, which has been scarcely 30 years in existence, 
has greatly extended latterly. 

The shirt-makers can be divided into two categories : those who deal 
directly with the retail houses and those who make for the wholesale 
trade and for exportation. The work-people employed under the first 
category earn, on an average, two francs per day; the second category of 
dealers have their articles made in the provincial workshops, in asylums, 
and convents, and rarely give more than one franc a day to the work- 
women employed. The number of women supphed with work by the 
shirt-making trade is estimated at about 30,000. This total includes the 
cutters, needlewomen, mounters, embroiderers, and laundresses. 

The amount annually produced reaches 70,000,000 francs, of which 
25,000,000 francs' worth are delivered for exportation. The manufacture 
of shirts, flannel bands, and drawers, has also increased to a great extent 
during the last 10 years, in consequence of the orders given for the army. 
The total value of this branch of business amounts to about 10,000,000 
francs. Articles in flannel are made by the same persons, as are also 
similar articles in cotton and linen; and although there is some differ- 
ence in the methods employed, the mode of manufacture may be looked 
upon as the same. The flannels used in this trade are produced in the 
town of Eheims ; and it should be added that the quality and lowness 
of its price causes it to find great favor in the foreign market. As a last 
consideration, it should be mentioned that the industries above referred 
to have, in one respect, a very interesting aspect, as they aUow the women 
employed in it to work at their own homes, and thereby give their atten- 
tion at the same time to the duties of the household. 

UNDERCLOTHING FOR WOMEN AND CHILDREN. 

This is another trade, which has been greatly developed during the 
last few years. Among the various articles which it includes may be 
mentioned chemises, jackets and drawers for ladies and children, and 
which, with many secondary articles, comi3rise the childbed linen and 
marriage trousseau. Tlie manufacture of these various articles demands, 
especially in the case of the more elegant kinds, much experience and 
taste, and great skilfulness and care on the part of the women employed 
in it. The Parisian seamstresses earn from 2 francs 25 centimes to 3 
francs a day ; and those who work in the provinces, in the convents, asy- 
lums, &c., from 1 franc 25 centimes to 2 francs 25 centimes per day. The 
number of women employed in the made-up linen trade is about 10,000. 
Sewing machines have had a powerful influence in developing this business ; 
the women who work them earning from 3 francs to 3 francs 50 centimes 



CLOTHING. 125 

per day. Tlie ready-made linen of France, and above all, that of Paris, 
enjoys a good reputation abroad, and tlie export trade has increased in a 
notable manner since 1855. The articles knoT\TQ under the name of Paris 
hosiery are in great demand in England, Germany, Sixain, Switzerland, 
and the two Americas. IN'early the whole of the fabrics which are nsed in 
the ready-made linen trade are of French origin, and especially from the 
factories of Qiientin, Tarare, and St. Etienne. Alsace and several depart- 
ments of the north supply linen cloth and plain cotton tissues. That kind 
of lace knoAvn as Yalenciemies is supplied by Belgium. The value of 
this trade is estimated at about 30,000,000 francs x)er annum. 

Since 1855, the stay-making trade has progressed in a very considera- 
ble manner, and the value of the business has increased in a very notable 
degree. Stays are di^ilded into two very distinct categories : stays vdtli 
seams, and stays without seams. The sewn stays are made by hand 
or with sewing machines. The seamless stays are woven on the Jac- 
quard power-loom. It is especially in Paris, or in the inincii^al provin- 
cial towns, that the sewing stays are made. The seamless stays are 
produced in large establishments at Bapaume, (Pas-de Calais,) Bar-le- 
Duc, (Meuse,) and at Ehezy, (Ehone.) The raw materials employed in 
stay-making are white and gray drills, which are supplied by the manu- 
factui'es of Elers and Evreux, real or imitation whalebone, sewing-cot- 
ton spun in France and in England, and sewing- silk, which is exclusively 
bought of Paris houses. 

Women are alone employed in the making u^) of stays, and work in 
tacking and sewing workshoi)s; they earn, according to their capacity, 
from 1 franc 75 centimes to 4 francs 50 centimes a day. For the mak- 
ing of stay bones of all kinds men are employed, whose daily wages are 
from 3 to 5 francs. 

At the present moment, the stay-making trade, in consequence of the 
new patterns introduced since 1862 — the results of which have been, in 
most cases, to prevent the great inconvenience, or rather the serious dan- 
ger x)roceeding from imperfectly manufactured stays — merits encoiu^aging 
notice. It has entered into a rational path, and pays still greater atten- 
tion to the laws of health and nature. On this x)oint we must not omit 
to mention the judicious innovations of clasps in the place of laces, the 
absence of gussets, &c. This branch of industry is daily estabhshing 
itself in the estimation of scientific men, who are not influenced by the 
unhapi)y and injurious exigencies of fashion. 

The ciinoUne trade, comparatively recent in its origin, and which occu- 
pies such an imx^ortant place in ladies' dress, comprehends tw^o rather dis- 
tinct articles, skeleton crinolines and crinoline petticoats. These articles 
are made in aU the towns of France, but the sale of them is especially 
active in Paris j and the Parisian makers owe this not only to the ele- 
gance of their productions, but also to the continual creation of new 
patterns. 

The principal materials used in the manufacture are the bands of steel. 



126 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

rolled and cut, whicli are raade in France and England, and wMcli are 
encased in a cotton covering, produced by macliinery. The woollen and 
cotton stuffs employed in crinoline-making come esi)ecially from Eoubaix, 
Amiens, Tarare, and Saint Quentin. The diaper, cambric muslin, and 
other fancy tissues are supplied by the manufactories of Mulhouse, Eouen, 
and Saint Marie-aux-Mines 5 the tape and sewing cotton are made at Ber- 
nay. To these various iDroducts must be added the silk and velvet trim- 
mings, and the buttons of all sorts, made in France and Germany. The 
construction of i)etticoats mthout steel forms a special branch of the 
trade in question. The Parisian work-people are the most skilful in the 
making of these various articles, and their salaries vary from 3 francs- 
50 centimes to 4 francs a day. The value of this trade is estimated at 
20,000,000 francs, of which half is due to the export trade. 

CLASS 35.— OLOTHmG FOR BOTH SEXES. 

The articles exhibited in class 35 may be divided under nine different 
heads: 1st. Clothing for men 5 2d. Clothing for women; 3d. Bonnets 
and head-dresses for women ; 4th. Artificial flowers ; 5th. Ornamental 
feathers -, 6th. Men's hats ; 7th. Men's caps and other head-gear ; 8th. 
Boots and shoes -, 9th. Fancy hair work. 

The familiar objects embraced in this class need no detailed description 
in an of&cial report. For the most part they have been akeady described 
in the newspapers devoted to fashions, and, at all events, a walk through 
any fashionable thoroughfare will convey a better idea of what was shown 
than any labored effort of the reporter. France was again upon her own 
ground, and distanced all competition. We give below the latest French 
particulars of the curious branches of industry included in the class, 
America had nine exhibitors. 

Men's clothes are made almost everywhere, but the principal establish- 
ments, both for fashionable as well as ready-made garments, are in Paris. 
Low-priced articles are, for the most part, made in the provinces. Many 
important houses have their principal workshops in the departments of 
thei^ord, Pas-de-Calais, Gironde, Gard, &c. Tailors and clothiers employ 
a great variety of fabrics, and consequently of all prices. Tailors and 
clothiers also use a considerable quantity of trimmings and buttons of all 
kinds. A few years ago tailors' work was done altogether by hand. 
Now, sewing machines are used to an immense extent ; in fact, it may be 
said that the greater part of the seams of garments are se^\ai by these 
machines. 

The cost of the workmanship of men's clothes amounts to about one- 
fifth the value of the goods. The workmen employed by the tailors and 
clothiers are naturally divided into two different categories : those who 
prepare, cut out, and arrange the work, and those who put it together. 
Five-sixths of the tailors work at home, while the rest are employed in 
the tailors' work-rooms. As to the workwomen — who, in Paris, are only 
half so numerous as the workmen — five- sixths of them work at home. 



CLOTHING. 127 

The men, T^orking either by the day or by the i3iece, earn from three to 
six francs a day, though some more industrious and skilful gain from 
eight to ten francs. The women earn from two to three francs fifty 
centimes, and a few from five to six francs. The tailor and clothier deal 
directly ^ith the i)urchaser. The tailors generally do their own cutting 
out, but the vendors of ready-made goods employ cutters, who prepare 
the AYork for the sewers. The business of exportation is generally made 
through the mediation of agents. It is almost impossible to ascertain 
the extent of the production of men's garments ; but it must be consid- 
erable, as the tailors and clothiers in Paris alone do business to the 
amount of more than 150,000,000 francs per annum. The articles exi)orted 
do not amount to the tenth part of the whole. 

The business has made great progress since 1855. The use of scAving 
machines increases every day. Many foreign governments have now 
recom^se to French clothiers for the equipment of their troops. This new 
branch of the business has rendered great service to the workmen, ena- 
bling them to obtain employment in all seasons of the year 5 and also to 
the great cloth manufactories, by giving them extra work, or helping 
them to get rid of unsalable articles. 

OLOTHINa FOR WOMEN. 

Paris is the gTeat centre for the making of ladies' clothing. This branch 
of trade employs an immense quantity of stuffs of all prices, from common 
printed cotton to the most exi)ensive velvet. Articles for summer wear 
are principally made of the light fabrics of Eheims, Elbeuf, Sedan, and 
Eoubaix, Scotch cashmeres, and French merinos; while those for winter 
are made of the thick, strong stuffs of Sedan, Elbeuf, and the south of 
France. Pillow and machine-made lace, as well as Paris, St. Etienne, 
and Lyons gTiipures and gimps, are used for the trimmings of ladies' 
clothes. The clothiers give the stuffs, cut or uncut, to dressmakers or 
ladies' tailors, who emx)loy from four to forty workwomen besides those 
who work at home. The articles are generally moimted and s,eyni by 
hand, the seA\ing machines being used for the trimmings. The sewing 
of ladies' outer clothing is done almost entirely by women, and females 
are generally emj)loyed for the sewing machine also. At this trade men 
earn in Paris on an average five francs a day and women two francs 
twenty-five centimes. 

The export of ladies' ready-made clothes is very considerable, the princi- 
pal markets being England, Belgium, Holland, Eussia, Spain,Italy, Turkey 
^orth and South America, and Australia. The articles principally 
exported are known by the names of paletots, talmas, pelisses, mantelets, 
embroidered shawls, scarfs, and jackets. Dresses, hoods, and children's 
clothing are also exported. The wholesale houses where these articles 
are made furnish the small provincial linen drapers and commission 
merchants, while the jirincipal linen drainers in Paris and the proAdnces 
generally buy the patterns and have the articles made up for themselves. 



128 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The production of tliese articles in the whole of France is estimated at 
100,000,000 francs, (£4,000,000.) Paris alone makes to the amount of 
40,000,000. Five-sixths of the whole are used in France, and only one- 
sixth is exported. Eeady-made articles are sold from three francs to 
foiu* hundred francs each 5 embroidered shawls, for instance, vary in 
price fi^om eight francs to three hundred. This branch of industry 
increases daily 5 new patterns are continually i3roduced, and are remark- 
able for taste and originality. Here, again, the growing use of the sewing 
machine must be noted. The business of the dressmakers — that is to 
say, those who make ladies' clothes, and particularly diesses to order — 
is daily becoming more important. This is one of the Parisian trades 
that demand the greatest amount of taste and invention 5 it is, naturally, 
almost exclusively followed by women. However, there are in Paris 
many important houses whose business is confined to the making of 
dresses where men are employed. The greater number of dressmakers 
are j)aid by the day, though some work by the piece ; the wages are not 
high J they earn, on an average, two francs twenty -five centimes per day. 
Dressmakers do not work exclusively for home use ; a certain quantity 
of handsome articles are sent to foreign countries. The exx)ort trade of 
Paris amounts to about the twelfth xjart of the whole production. 

LADIES' HEAD-DRESSES. 

Millinery is essentially a Parisian trade ; it is in Paris that all those 
novelties are created which, at the commencement of each season, decide 
the fashions. The materials used in bonnet and cap making, such as 
buckram, wire, whalebone, various stuffs, flowers, and lace, are obtained 
from si^ecial manufacturers. The milliners, so to speak, only arrange and 
combine these materials. There is no fixed method of manufacturing 
articles of millinery; it is altogether a matter of taste and ingenuity. 
The workmanshii) forms only a small item in the value of the whole. 
Three-quarters of the working milliners are Parisian; about an eighth 
part are natives of Belgium and Germany; the rest come from the pro- 
vinces, especially Angouleme, Tours, Kancy, and Dieppe. Part of these 
workwomen board and lodge with their employers, and earn, on an ave- 
rage, two and a half francs a day. This trade employs very few men; 
a great number of young girls work as apprentices. IS'early all milliners 
sell direct to the purchaser. Some houses make up articles specially for 
exportation, and these alone employ under-milliners, who receive the 
requisite materials for a certain number of bonnets and head-dresses, and 
Ijrepare the Avork by tacking the various stuffs upon the ready-made 
shapes which they furnish. The ribbons and flowers are always added 
by the milliner herself. 

It is difficult to estimate the exact amount of bonnets and head-dresses 
annually made in France, but it must be considerable, as the Parisian 
milliners' returns amount to nearly 20,000,000 francs, (£800,000;) the 
export amounts to about a tenth of the whole. Paris millinery is sent 



CLOTHING. 

cliiefly to America, England, Spain, Belgium, Holland, Germany, Eussia, 
and the French and English colonies. 

ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS. 

The fabrication of artificial flowers occupies a conspicuous x)Osition 
among the various and interesting Parisian industries, and may be 
called artistic. The materials used in the manufacture are very numer- 
ous; for the leaves and blossoms, jaconet, nansouk, cambric, muslin, 
velvet, crape, satin, silk, French cambric, feathers, paper and wax are 
made use of; for the stems, berries and fruits, wire, silk, cotton, floss silk, 
paper, starch, gum, gelatine, wax, paste, chenille, quills, whalebone, gauze, 
chopped wool and glass balls are employed. For mounting the flowers, 
silk, paper, gauze, iron, and brass are required. Artificial flower-makers 
always use the same instruments — goffering irons, stami)s, &c. ; the 
galvano-plastic process is sometimes employed. 

The cost of the workmanship amounts to about the four-tenths of the 
value of the productions, and the materials employed to about three- 
tenths ; the remaining three-tenths represent the profit of the producer. 
The manufacture of artificial flowers is divided into a great many differ- 
ent branches ; for the preparation of the colors there are special work- 
shops. The manufacture of artificial flowers is generally carried on at 
the homes of the work-i)eople ; such is the case in, at least, 1,500 of the 
2,000 Paris flower-makers. This trade employs 15,000 i)eople, of whom 
nine-tenths are women and girls. The men earn about four francs a day; 
the women two francs twenty-five centimes. The mounting and sale of 
artificial flowers is carried on, for the most part, in handsome shops and 
show-rooms, where all kinds of flowers are generally sold, as weU as the 
different sorts of ornamental feathers. Three-quarters of the whole 
amount of artificial flowers are exported through the medium of commis- 
sion agents. The extent of the trade is about 18,000,000 francs per 
annum. Artificial flowers are exported x)rincipally to America, England, 
Belgium, Eussia, and Germanj^ 

ORNAMENTAL FEATHERS. 

Feathers are prepared and mounted in Paris, which enjoys a justly- 
earned reputation for the i)reparation, bleaching, dyeing, and arrange- 
ment of this article. The most beautiful and recherche feathers are those 
of the ostrich and marabout, which are imported through Leghorn and 
London. 'Next come the feathers of the birds of paradise, the cassowary, 
and those known by the name of aigrettes, and bastard ostrich feathers, 
called vulture's plumes. Cock's feathers, the down of the white turkey, 
and the feathers of the various kinds of exotic and indigenous birds, are 
also made use of. The different preparations to which feathers are sub- 
mitted consist merely in arrangement, bleaching, and dyeing, though we 
must not forget to mention a mechanical process by which gpose's feathers 
are made to imitate different kinds of gTasses. 
9 u E 



130 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The ornamental feather trade employs few men, but a great number of 
women and girls. The dyeing of feathers is all that is done by men. 
The great part of these feathers are exported, through the medium of 
commission merchants, to America and the colonies ; but Paris furnishes 
also the principal milliners of Europe. Ornamental feathers are prepared 
to the amount of 10,000,000 francs, of which about 8,000,000 are exported. 
The manner of dyeing and preparing feathers has undergone little modi- 
fication since 1855 , only a method has been discovered of tiu^ning black 
feathers into gray, which allows of their being dyed of various colors. 

men's hats and caps. 

French hatters manufacture silk hats, black and white, short nap 
beaver hats, fancy dressed felt hats for country wear and for travelling, 
and soft felt hats. Paris, Lyons, Marseilles, Aix, Toulouse, Bordeaux, 
and some other southern towns, are the centres of the hat trade. Caps 
of various kinds are principally made in Paris, Eueuil, Chalons, and 
Condom. The principal materials used in the manufacture of hats are 
the skins of the beaver and muskrat, imported from Canada 5 that of the 
Gondin rat of the centre of South America 5 the fur of the hare, furnished 
by France, Germany, and Eussiaj that of the rabbit, so abundant in 
France, and wool of different kinds used for making cheap articles. 
France alone supplies annually rabbit and hare skins to the amount of 
70,000,000 francs, and exports 35,000,000 worth. The average price of 
rabbit skins is 40 francs for 101 skins; hare skins are worth one-third 
more. The manufacture of hats may be divided into two distinct sorts, 
the manufacture of soft and firm felt hats and that of silk hats. • Work- 
men, whose special business it is to cut the hair from the skins, furnish 
the makers with their raw materials. The manufacture of felt hats 
includes several operations. The ikir is first beaten, either by hand or by 
a machine. By this process a bag of felt twice the size of the hat is pro- 
duced; this is then fulled, either by hand or by a special machine used for 
the purpose. Arrived at this point of its manufacture, the hat is scraped 
with a knife, to take off the long hairs, rubbed Avith pumice-stone, then 
stiffened or not, as required. It is then dyed, blocked into forms, bound, 
and finally the leather and head-lining are added. The manufactin'e of 
silk hats is different. First of all, the form is made of various fabrics, 
stiffened with gum-shellac, and upon it is j)laced a kind of silk i)lush, and 
within it a fabric which serves for lining. A great many silk hats are 
made with the adhesive linings, in whicli case the interior becomes part 
of the solid form. The working hatters are generally well paid; some 
earn as much as 10 francs per day, but the average is between 10 and 50 
francs per week. The men work by the piece, and are under the direc- 
tion of foremen, ^liosen from among the best workmen. Tlie latter 
earn from 2,000 to 3,000 francs per year. Women do not earn more than 
from 18 to 21 francs per week. Nearly all the men and women employed 
in this trade, and especially the men, work in the factories. 



CLOTHING. 131 

The productions of tlie French hatters are exported to nearly all parts 
of the workl, sales being effected through the medium of commission 
merchants. The prices of hats vary greatly 5 they are sold from three or 
foiu^ francs to 25 and 30 francs each. Opera, or spring hats, in partic- 
ular, are exported in considerable quantities. The manufacture of hats 
alone, without taking into consideration various kinds of caps, amounts 
to the sum of 24,000,000 francs, or nearly £1,000,000 a year, out of which, 
at least, 10,000,000 worth of felt and about 2,000,000 worth of silk hats 
are exported. 

Since 1855 a great many ingenious tools and machines have been 
invented to facilitate the manufacture of hats. The materials employed 
remain the same, but the wages of the workmen liav^ greatly increased. 
The hat manufactm^ers now make and completely finish their goods, so 
that the hatter who puts his name into the crown of the hat is onlj^ an 
agent between the producer and consumer. 

The principal places where caps are made are Paris, Toidon, Lyons, 
Limoges, Lille, Bernay, &c. The manufactiu^e of men's caps employs a 
great variety of fabrics, from silk and fine cloth to the commonest stuff. 
Even old materials dyed and turned are made use of. The manufacture 
of the better sort of caps has been greatlj^ improved during the last few 
years. This is partly due to the sewing machine, which does the sewing 
very neatly, besides doing a great variety of embroidery at comparatively 
low prices. The women who make caps sometimes work at the shops 
and sometimes at home. One set of workwomen join together, vdth the 
aid of the sewing machine, the several pieces of the cap, which is then 
padded, if required, stitched, and embroidered ; women press the seams, 
put on the peak, and complete the work. Most of the workwomen work 
at home, and earn from 2 francs and 25 centimes to 2 fi^ancs and 50 cen- 
times x)er day. 

Most of the caps made are sold at home, but a certain number are 
exported to America, Spain, Portugal, Holland, Germany, and Italy. 
This trade is carried on through commission merchants. The value of 
the caps made amounts to about 20,000,000 francs annually, and a 
small portion, as akeady stated, is exported. The cap called ''kepi," 
which, since 1848, has been introduced into the army, the national guard, 
the public schools, and administrations, forms a considerable item in the 
manufactiu^e. 

The workmen's wages have greatly increased since 1855. They are 
all now pretty well remunerated. Connected with the general cap trade 
is that of the Greek cax) or "fez.'^ These are either knitted or made of 
felted cloth. The principal fabrics of fez caps are produced at Orleans, 
Paris, Eueuil, Chalons, and Condom. A considerable portion of these 
caps are exported. 

BOOTS AI^ SHOES. 

Shoemaking may now be divided into three classes — sewed boots and 
shoes, which represent a large amount of business 5 those put together 



132 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

by pegs or nails ; and tliose put together by screws. Sewed boots and 
shoes are mostly made in Paris, Nantes, Marseilles, Bordeaux, and 
Fougeres ; pegged boots and shoes in Paris, Liancourt, Eomans, Blois, 
and Angers ; while those made with screws are only manufactured in 
Paris. Shoemakers generally use ox and cow hides for the soles, while 
the upper leathers are made of calf, kid, goat, and sheep skins. Woollen, 
silk, and woollen mixed, cotton and linen, and elastic fabrics, are also 
brought into use. 

France i)roduces about eight-tenths of the whole amount of hides 
employed for making soles, five-tenths of the calf skins, five-tenths of the 
kid and goat skins, and nine-tenths of the sheep skins used for upper 
leathers. As to the different woollen, silk and woollen, cotton and thread 
fabrics employed in the manufacture of boots and shoes, they are nearly 
all produced in France. However, only five-tenths of the mixed fabrics 
of wool and cotton, and eight-tenths of the elastic fabrics used in shoe- 
making, are of French manufacture. The various kinds of lining are 
made in France. IsTo machinery is emi)loyed in the manufacture of those 
boots and shoes which are made to order. On the other hand, ready- 
made boots and shoes are partly manufactured by machinery, and those 
soles which are made with pegs and screws are put together by machin- 
ery. The raw materials are cut out by means of paring-knives and cut- 
ting-out machines of various kinds. 

The men employed in the manufacture of boots and shoes are divided 
into three classes — the foremen, receivers, and cutters. The i)roportion 
of workmen and workwomen working in their own homes is eighty-five 
to the hundred ; the rest are employed in the manufactories. Half of 
the people employed in this trade are women -, their work consists in 
binding, tacking, stitching, and joining the upper portions. Women 
earn, on an average, 2 francs per day, and men 4 francs. The ready- 
made boot and shoe trade is in France carried on by commercial travel- 
lers, who sell to the provincial dealers. Commission merchants buy for 
exportation. The average price of good boots and shoes is IG francs for 
men, 8 francs for women, and 6 francs for children 5 the commoner sort 
of boots and shoes for men are sold on an average at 8 francs, for women 
at 5 francs, and children at 3 francs a pair. These productions of the 
French trade are principally exported to the Levant, ]!!^orth and South 
America, the East and West Indies, England, Italy, and Switzerland. 
Paris alone produces boots and shoes to an amomit of 100,000,000 francs; 
the i)rovinces also contribute largely to this trade, and about 40,000,000 
francs' worth of boots and shoes are exported. 

Since 1855 the use of sewing machines for the putting together of the 
upper leathers has become very general, and the various other mechan- 
ical means for saving labor are being employed on a large scale. Work- 
men's Avages have risen 20 per cent, in the same space of time. 



CLOTHING. 133 



HAIR-WORK. 



Tlie hair trade is now one of considerable imi)ortance. It is in Paris 
tliat hair is particularly well prepared, and it is also in Paris that wigs 
and false hair are made in the greatest perfection. Hair is, in France, 
chiefly obtained in the following departments : Pny de Dome, Cantal, 
Correze, Lozere, Denx Se^rres, Yienne, Allier, Manche, Cotes dn ^ord, 
and Ele et Yillaine. Italy, Belgium, and Germany also furnish a large 
amount of human hair. A great deal of beautiful hair is obtained from 
the convents. The hair from the western departments is superior to that 
from the south and midland departments. The price of hair not pre- 
pared and sorted is, on an average, 50 francs the kilogram; but in 
1865 it rose to nearly 65 francs, and it is even supposed to have been 
sold at 100 francs. 

In these productions there are only two kinds of manufacture — that of 
wigs, fronts, &c., and that of false plaits and curls. The beauty of the 
article varies according to the skill of the hair-dresser. In such matters 
the form is everything. The condition of the women and workmen 
employed in this trade is becoming better every day. The wages have 
risen considerably during the last few j^ears ; the working hair-dressers 
now earn on an average 5 francs a day ; those women who are employed 
in making false plaits, &c., receive on an average 2 francs and 25 cent- 
imes per day, and those who make wigs, &c., 3 francs. Hair-dressers 
deal directly with the public. 

The hair trade is carried on by large wholesale buyers, who obtain the 
hair from the travellers and smaU itinerant dealers, and then, after its 
having undergone different preparations, seU it to the hair-dressers. The 
average price of prepared hair is 140 francs the kilogram ; wigs cost, 
on an average, 40 francs the piece, and chignons 15 francs. In France 
are sold annually 68,000 kilograms of hair, of which 40,000 are French 
and 20,000 from Italy, Belgium, and Germany 5 8,000 kilograms of 
refuse hair are gathered in the hair-dressers' rooms and other different 
quarters. Great Britain, America, and Eussia buy from France 30,000 
kilogTams of hair; 25,000 kilograms are emi^loyed in France in 
making wigs, &c., and about 13,000 are exported into different other 
countries. Dimng the last few years a great many new kinds of fabrics 
in Avhich to imi)lant the hair for the making of wigs have been invented. 
They are made of all kinds of materials — silk net, cotton net, and silk 
gauze ; there is even a fabric woven of white hairs. AU the wigs, plaits, 
&c., are made by women, as well as the watch-chains, bracelets, and 
other fancy articles in hair. 

CLASS 36.-^JEWELE,Y AND ORNAMENTS. 

"The articles exhibited in this class form two principal divisions, and 
comprise: 1. Fine and imitation jewelry; 2. Trinkets, including gold 
ornaments, decorated or enriched with precious stones or enamels ; plated 



134 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

jeTvelry; copper gilt jewelry, ^Mcli may be decorated with imitation 
pearlSj coral work, steel and black ornaments. 

^'According to the distinction made in France, gold and silver are mere 
accessories in jewehy, but precious stones are essential; while the con- 
trary is the case with resi)ect to trinkets or bijouterie, (which terms do 
not correspond v4th those used, in England.) Paris is the chief seat of 
the jewehy and ornament trade of France ; after the capital city comes 
Lyons, Marseilles, and the departments of Cantal, Puy de Dome, and 
Ariege. Watch cases are made especially at Besangon. The lapidary 
trade, both for precious and other stones, has become a very important 
branch of industry in the Jura. 

'^ The chief materials used in the manufactures of jeweky are diamonds, 
precious stones, pearls, or imitation gems. The prices of pearls and pre- 
cious stones are very variable, on account of weight, color, and quality. 
The principal sources are India, the Indian archii)elago, Siberia, and the 
central regions of the new world. The raw materials of bijouterie are : 
gold, of the value of 2,600 francs the kilogram ; and silver, worth 200 
francs the kilogram. The chief sources of suj)ply are Australia, 
Siberia, and ]S"orth America. The jeweller receives the cut gems from 
the lapidary, who, from his experience, is enabled to add greatly to their 
value. The cutting is performed with the aid of a mechanical process. 
The business of the jeweUer is to mount the gems or other subsjfances, 
his trade being especially one of taste. The workman models and chases 
the precious metals, and enriches them with enamels, or vith gems or 
stones. The elements employed by both, such as the bezels or settings, 
bodies of rings, and other parts, are produced with the aid of' cutting 
presses, rollers, and other machines. Plated jewelry work is executed, 
with the aid of machinery, mth such perfection that sheets of copper, 
upon which are soldered plates of gold one-twelfth the thickness of the 
former, are transformed into ornaments of all kinds without exhibiting a 
trace of the existence of copper. In these trades, with the excex)tion of 
a few special cases, the masters rarely employ more than eight or ten 
workmen, and on one-quarter of the whole work alone only employ one 
joiu'ueyman and apprentices. The operatives sometimes work in the 
shops of their employers and sometimes at home ; the last-named repre- 
senting about one-tenth of the entire body. Women are also employed 
to the extent of about 20 per cent., but chiefly in polishing. The prin- 
cipal markets for the exportation of jeweky and trinkets are Spain and 
her colonies, the United States, Brazil, Tiu^key, Eg5i)t, Italy, Switzer- 
land, England, and Eussia. 

^'The quantity of gold annually employed by the jewellers and gold- 
smiths of France is equal to 17 tons, and of the value of 44,200,000 francs, 
(£1,768,000.) The silver amounts to 89 tons, of the value of 17,800,000 
francs. . The workmanship adds 60 per cent, to the value of the gold and 
40 per cent, to that of silver. The total value of the production is there- 
fore 95,640,000 francs, (£3,825,000.) The exports of gold jewelry are 



CLOTHING. 135 

equal to two and a half tons, and of the commercial value of 10,400,000 
francs ; and of silver work to eleven and a half tons of the value of 
3,150,000 francs, (£120,000.) The diamonds, pearls, and other gems are 
not included in the above estimate. The trade is carried on by 1,250 
manufactiu^ers, who employ 20,500 persons, of whom 12,500 are workmen, 
properly so called. It is estimated that 2,000 wholesale dealers and 
1,000 merchants are engaged indirectly in disposal of the produce of the 
trade. 

" The em]3loyment of machinery has become general since 1855, and has 
reduced the cost of production without detracting from the perfection 
or finish of the work. Plated gold jewelry is without a rival abroad, 
and enables French commerce to compete with the low-standard gold 
work of England and Germany. The formation of a comx)any for sweep- 
washing, and the reduction of the products, the initiation of a syndical 
chamber, and of an association formed of masters and workmen, have 
greatly favored the progress which the jewelry trade commenced to 
make in 1855." — Introduction to the class; official catalogue. 

ENG-LISH AND FKENCH JEWELRY. 

The principal exhibitors in this class were France and England. In 
the absolute merit of the goods exposed — speaking only of the finer 
sorts — it Avould be difficult to say which excelled the other. English 
jewelry, in accordance with English taste in general, is characterized 
by solidity and massiveness. French jewelry, on the contrary, aims at 
lightness of effect and beauty of design. The English try to make their 
precious stones secure ) the French to make them fascinating 'and also 
secm^e. The precious stones of a piece of jewelry are let into small 
cells cut for each individual stone out of a solid i)iece of silver or gold. 
The stones when inserted into these have to be secured that the i)ortion 
of the edge of the stone held by and therefore concealed in the setting 
may be tlie smallest portion i)ossible consistently with firmness of grip. 
To avoid the vulgarity of heaviness and the insecurity of lightness 
requires the nicest skill. Precisely as the artist triumphs over these 
difficulties does he produce a work of excellence and durability. 

There was a dazzling display of diamonds particularly noticeable in 
the French court where the exhibitors were together, and the opportu- 
nity for contrast and study were most readily commanded. In the 
English section the exhibitors occupied little stalls of their own like sen- 
try boxes, and isolated themselves as much as possible from their 
neighbors. 

The productions of Mr. Massin and Mr. Froment Meurice were remark- 
able for perfection of workmanship and richness of materials. One of 
the most beautiful examples, by the first-named jeweler, was a sprig of 
wild rose executed in diamonds, presenting the lightness, the suavity of 
curve, elasticity of bough, and other characteristics of nature itself. In 
perfection of symmetry and radiant simx)licity it was almost faultless. 



136 PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

« 
A pair of earrings shaped as rosebuds, whereof the bud was a pink 
pearl, formed an exquisite adjunct to a parure of similar treatment rep- 
resenting a rose branch, while a charmingly rendered water-lily and a 
cornflower of sapphires and diamonds may further be pointed out, as 
lovely specimens of Mr. Massin's handling of the forms of nature. These 
works were carefidly scrutinized by the jury and found to be as firm 
as they were light and elegant. 

The value of Mr. Meurice's jewels was mainly in the workmanship. A 
head ornament of colored diamonds, a shell with a sprig, was the most 
elegant and probably the most valuable ornament of the kind in the 
Exposition. It is extremely difficult to match colored diamonds. These 
were extremely well mated and worked up. Among them were some 
pink diamonds, which, with more brilliancy, had almost the depth and 
color of the ruby. There were also green, yellow, and brown diamonds 
among them. 

The fashions seem once more to incline to colored gems. Lemoine 
made an immense display of dark pearls in all shades of green, red, pink, 
yellow, and brown. They are used mainly in combination with diamonds. 

Boucheron, another maker of repute, had a good display of diamond 
jewelry. A single x>air of earrings in this case was worth $120,000 in 
gold. They were set with simplicity, but each weighed 23 carats. The 
same maker exhibited many articles where the skill of workmanship 
exceeded the value of the material. 

In a different, but not much cheaper way, were the agates and rock 
crystals of Duron set in the style of Benvenuto Cellini and his school; 
works of art that would worthily occupy a place in any collection. 

In an adjoining case were two necklaces of half crystalized black 
diamonds, a mineral i3henomenon little known, and remarkaMe more for 
its rarity than beauty. 

The jewels of the Countess of Dudley, exhibited in the English sec- 
tion, were the finest in the Exhibition, both as regards the size and color 
of the stones employed. They were shown, with many other splendid 
specimens of work, in the cases of Messrs. Hunt and Eoskell. 

Mr. Harry Emmanuel and the other British makers amply sustained 
their world-wide reputations. 

The effort of the present time in the manufacture of diamond jewelry 
is to give movements to the different parts by which the reflections and 
refractions are increased. 

DIAMOND-CUTTING ESTABLISHMENT. 

The illustration of the processes by which precious stones or other 
artificial imitations are wrought was excellently given by Mr. Coster, of 
Amsterdam, who had a diamond-cutting factory erected in the Park, 
fitted up with the customary machinery and occupied by his regular 
workmen. The first rough shaping of the more important facets of the 
brilliant is x^erformed by operating with two diamonds at once, each 



CLOTHING. 137 

firmly secured in a liaiidle and bruising eacli against tlie otlier, angle 
against angle. The dust that falls from the stones is i3reserved for the 
subsequent processes of grinding and polishing those facets that distin- 
guish the many-sided brilliants from the dull original crystal of dia- 
mond. It is used, mingled with oil, on a flat iron disk, which revolves 
rapidly by means of steam power, the stone being laid upon this disk or 
wheel and pressed upon it by means of a weighted tool, which the 
attendant watches carefully. Skill of eye and hand, only attainable by 
great practice, is needed for this work. But more curious still, and 
requiring equal or greater skill, is the cleavage, or splitting of the stone. 
A little notch is scratched in the diamond by means of a knife pointed 
with the same material. A steel blade is then inserted in this opening, 
and a tap cleaves the stone in the direction required. The process is 
rax)id and based on mathematical rules which govern the splitting of 
the stone. The diamond, when a blow is struck on an edged tool placed 
parallel to one of the octahedral faces of the crystal, readily splits in that 
direction. It was not the less remarkable to see the process so aptly 
performed. 

There were other objects of interest in Mr. Coster's exhibition. For 
the first time the diamond was exhibited side by side with the minerals 
that accompany it in the river-bed of Brazil 5 and there were very rare 
examples in which crystals of diamonds were included within a mass of 
quartz crystals, having all the appearance of having been formed simul- 
taneously with the diamond, but believed by some of the mineralogists 
to be artificial combinations. But the most extraordinary curiosity x)os- 
sessed by Mr. Coster was a rose-pink diamond of some 29 carats, endowed 
with the marvellous property of becoming perfectly bleached by an 
exposure of some four minutes to the effect of the atmosi)heric light. It 
recovers its rose color at a gentle heat and retains it for any length of 
time in darkness. 

It may not be uninteresting in this place to give some particulars of 
Mr. Coster's Amsterdam establishment, which employs 316 lapidaries, 
assistants and apprentices, 88 cutters, and 21 splitters, forming an 
aggregate of 425 workmen, and receiving from $5,000 to $6,000 per week 
for wages. The annual imi)ortation of the diamond in the rough state 
amounts to nearly 1,000 pounds troy. Of this immense quantity Mr- 
Coster has received nearly half. For the finer varieties of diamond, 
averaging in weight under half a carat, a price equivalent to $50 or $55 
(always in gold) a carat is now paid; and the price has doubled since 
1848, at which date $22 or $25 would have purchased diamonds for 
which $50 or $55 have to be paid now. Thus a diamond of 2 carats 
weight, worth then some $150, is now worth from $300 to $350, and some- 
times more; while a perfect brilliant of 4 carats is now worth from $1,000 
to $1,500. ^A^en Jeifries wrote his book on the diamond, a century and 
a half ago, a carat diamond now worth $85 was valued at $40. 

Two of the three great existing historical diamonds were cut by Mr. 

f 



138 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Coster. These were tlie Koli-i-iioor, of 103 carats, and the Star of the 
South, a Brazilian stone, slightly bro^^ai in hue, of 125 carats. The 
third, known as the Pitt or Eegent diamond, the well-known crown jewel 
of France, weighs 135 carats, and was cut in the last century. , 

Among the curious uses of diamonds, rubies, and other fine stones, may 
be mentioned that of using them for the purpose of drawing fine wire. 
They are drilled to the requisite diameter, and answer the purpose better 
than any other material. Precious stones are also used for the working 
points of watches, for i^ointing drilling machines, and many other iiur- 
poses. Indeed, the increased i^rice of the diamond may be ascribed to 
the fact that it is rapidly becoming a tool as well as an ornament. 
Thus, while it is superseding steel, steel revenges itself by stepping into 
the pohte domains of the diamond. It has even created a sensation 
there. Much of the fine steel jewelry exhibited iii the Exi)osition was 
second only in delicate faceting and brilliancy to that of the diamond 
itself. ♦ 

There was but a single exhibitor in this class from the United States- 
It was to be regretted, inasmuch as in a medium style of cheap jewelry 
the United States can, owing to the great use of machinery, be com- 
pared favorably with the best. 

CLASS 37.— POETABLE ARMS. 

The manufactures included ia this class form three distinct series: 
1st. Sporting and gallery fire-arms, comi^rising fowKng-ineces, rifles, pis- 
tols, revolvers, duck-guns, blunderbusses, and mihtary ^rms for exporta- 
tion; 2d. Side-arms and other arms, such as sabres, swords, foils, x)oign- 
ards, bayonets, axes, maces, casques, shields, cuu'asses, &c. 

The principal centres of production in France: 

1st. For fowling-pieces and highly-finished fire-arms, are Paris and St. 
Etienne. The latter i)lace, producing the largest quantity, may there- 
fore be considered as the chief seat of the trade. Paris is famous for 
its highly-finished arms. Her models are sought by all nations, and the 
arms produced by her manufacturers are justly renowned for the finish 
of the work, the perfection of the details, and the elegance of the forms. 

2d. Military arms for exportation are produced almost entirely by the 
directors of the factories of the state, at St. Etienne, Chattellerault, 
(Yienne,) Tulle, (Correze,) and Mutzig, (Bas Ehin,) and by private makers 
in Paris and Maubeuge, (^S^ordj) certain detached portions are made at 
Cliarleville, (Ardennes. ) 

3d. Swords and other side-arms are made at Chattellerault, Kiugen- 
tlial, (Bas Ellin,) and St. Etienne, but the whole of the mountings, scab- 
bards, and accessories are produced in Paris, where they form a special 
industry, remarkable for artistic workmanship and finish. 

4th. The maimfacture of percussion caps, priming, and cartridges, is 
confined exclusively to the metropolitan departments of the Seine and 
Seine-et-Oise, and is in the hands of five or six manufacturers, who are 



CLOTHING. 139 

enabled not only to supply the entire home demand, but also to export 
a considerable quantity. 

The iron and steel employed in the manufacture of fire and other arms 
are produced on rrench soil. For the finer arms the iron is derived from 
the department of the Yosges, and costs, on an average, 66 francs the 
100 kilograms, (33 fi'ancs the hundred weight.) The steel comes from 
Isere and Loire, and costs from 120 to 150 francs. The mountings 
and accessories of swords and other side-arms require, also, coi)per, horn, 
leather, ivory, mother-of-pearl, silver, gold, and other materials. Steel 
forms the chief material of military arms; it is derived from the basin 
of the Loire, at Eive-de-gier and Ferminy, and is delivered, on an aver- 
age, at 95 francs the 100 kilograms for cannons, and at 160 francs for 
sabres, bayonets, and cuirasses. The price of the iron employed in the 
making of military arms is 65 francs the 100 kilograms. Steel forms 
about three-fifths of the material of the arms manufactured in France, 
and its amount is estimated at 2,500 tons per annum for all -kinds of 
arms. The wahnit wood used for gun-stocks is i)roduced at Auvergne 
and Poitouj the price of the wood when cut uj) is about 2 francs per 
I)iece for military arms, and 8 francs for fowling-pieces. Percussion caps, 
priming, and cartridges are manufactured mth Chilian copper, which, 
when refined and rolled out, is worth in France, on the average, 250 
francs the 100 kilograms. Brass wire oidy costs 225 francs. The 
makers of these articles use about 500 tons of copper per annum. The 
fulminating x)owder is comi)osed of mercury, from the mines of Spain, 
costing 5 francs 40 centimes per kilogram; alcohol, mineral acids, 
nitrate of soda, and chlorate of potash, at the jnice of 4 francs. These 
last materials are of French production. The making of cartridges 
absorbs annually 200 tons of paper, made in France, and costing from 
60 francs to 170 francs the 100 kilograms. Lastly, the materials of 
felt wads cost 28 francs the 100 kilograms. 

Machinery occupies daily a more conspicuous place in the production 
of the barrel, the stock, and certain other i:)arts of military fire-arms. 
For the barrels, the principal means employed are the tilt-hammer, for 
faggoting iron and steel; rollers, the lathe, and slide-rest, to replace the 
file ; drilling, boring, and rifling machines. The barrels of highly-finished 
arms are manufactured with the aid of the same machines and tools, to 
which, however, must be added the soldering furnace, for uniting double 
barrels. Lathes, countersinking tools, and planing machines are used 
in the manufacture of the stocks, the lock-i)lates, and other i)ortions of 
military arms. Lastly, the use of machines has been adopted in the 
making of revolvers, which have been in great demand during the last 
few years. Hand-labor, on the contrary, is still employed for the adjust- 
ment and fitting of the various parts of arms. The same is the case as 
regards highly -finished arms ; and, with the sole exception of the barrel, it is 
easy to comi)rehend that the application of machinery would be almost 
impossible in the case of elaborate and fancy arms, which require delicate 



140 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

ornamentation and great variety in the form. In tlie case of swords and 
other side-arms, the operations of sharpening and monnting are also per- 
formed by hand. This portion of the manufacture which partakes of 
the arts of the engraver, chaser, gilder, and arm-goldsmith, in their 
highest phases, can never he executed without the hand of man. 

Each maker of percussion caps, priming, and cartridges has his otv^i 
peculiar machines and materials. These are driven by steam, and include 
cutting and stamx)ing presses, rollers, filhng machines, &c. 

Men, women, and children are employed in the making of arms. The 
manufacture of percussion caps, and particidarly of cartridges, emj)loys 
a large number of women. Generally the work-peoi)le are employed in 
the shops of the manufacturers, and, under the direction of the flatter, a 
certain number work at home. Some are paid by the piece and others 
by the day. The number of workmen employed in this trade is about 
15,000. The arms are sold generally where they are manufactured, but 
especially in Paris and at St. Etienne. Paris is the principal market; the 
armorers there supx)ly not only the arms called Parisian, but also many 
others made elsewhere, and which are sometimes finished by Parisian 
workmen. Paris is also the market for side-arms, mounted and finished, 
for the officers of the army, the officials who wear uniforms, for the pro- 
vincial dealers in arms and mihtary equipments, and finally for exporta- 
tion. Paris is thus the great dejyot for arms, as w^eU as for cartridges. 
The whole production of arms, cartridges, &c., in France may be set 
down at about 15,000,000 francs in value. This amount, of which St. 
Etienne represents about 6,000,000 francs, may be divided as follows: 
Fire-arms and bayonets, 10,000,000 francs; side-arms, 1,000,000' francs; 
caps, priming, and cartridges, 4,000,000; total, 15,000,000 francs. 

Among the improvements introduced into the manufacture of arms 
since 1855, the committee note the following : Planing machines, which 
allow more perfect workmanship in the barrels, as regards their finishing 
and boring; the many imx)rovements made in the methods of breech-load- 
ing; the adoption of small calibre and breech-loading for military arms; 
the use of cast steel in place of iron for the barrels of rifled and other 
arms; and, lastly, the introduction, already referred to, of mechanical 
processes which tend to replace manual labor more and more every day. 
England and America preceded France for some time in these respects ; 
but ma imfacturers have followed boldly the examples of these two nations, 
and march in their footsteps with courage and success. We must point 
out, also, the introduction of more ingenious methods in the manufac- 
ture of cartridges, AYith the view to obtain the most complete and efiect- 
ive combustion. 

The manufacture of arms, considering its importance and the amount 
of trade, is not yet sufficiently developed; but sensible progress has 
already been made, and the impulse which circumstances have recently 
given to the production of military arms is aiding us to bridge over more 
rapidl}^ the distances which separate France from the more advanced 



CLOTHING. 141 

nations. Moreover, it is right to repeat that, in the matter of highly- 
finished arms, French manufacturers stand in the first rank; it defies all 
competition as regards artistic taste, elegance of form, and the ability 
of workmen. Similar superiority is also to be noted in the case of 
priming and cartridges. This class of manufacture, which is not of 
French origin, and not yet 40 years old, has grown with great rapidity, 
and its products, which have nearly doubled since 1855, are sought by 
all nations, on account of their perfection and low iDrice. The rapidly- 
increasing use of breech-loading arms, and the improvements which are 
constantly introduced, are opening up new sources for this manufacture, 
andi^romise it an almost unlimited field. — Alexander Fouquier,meml)er of 
the committee of admission of class 37. 

It may be presumed that the invention of portable arms was almost 
coeval with the creation of man, inasmuch as the term means anything 
from a stone, or club cut from the neighboring thicket, to the electric 
pistol, which does not even put a murderer to the trouble of pulling th^ 
trigger. To make a weapon that would protect the bearer from the 
onslaughts of wild beasts was an early necessity. He did it rudely at 
first, but improved as he found a finer beast — man — to kill. Il^o art has 
made such rapid strides as this, and no art has left behind it such unques- 
tionable traces of its growth anfl progress. The tiller who whistles at 
his plough , in our western lands, turns ui) at each furrow some indica- 
tion that a race less agricultural, but vastly more belligerent, has pre- 
ceded him. In the gallery devoted to the so-called ''history of labor" 
were specimens of all the earUer weapons, commencing with the flint, 
and progressing rapidly to the metal. The i^rogress, even in the remote 
past, was rapid; in the loresent day it has exceeded that of any other 
art. Especially is this the case in fire-arms. Skill can never be abolished, 
either in warfare or in sporting ; but a very small amount of skill is aU 
that the manufacturer of to-day requires. The soldier blazes at his 
enemy at 5,000 yards until he ''pots" him, or undergoes the process of 
being "potted" himself. The sportsman pursues his covey with cart- 
ridges that place themselves in a breech-loader, and require nothing at 
his hands except a touch of the finger. Well may Captain Majendie, 
E. A., bewail this state of things. "It is impossible," says this officer, 
who was also a reporter on the class, "not to feel that the interest 
which has hitherto attached to this class of arms has, in a great 
measure, departed since the general adoption of breech-loading rifles. 
The occasions henceforth must be comi)aratively rare in which hand-to- 
hand contests wiU be possible." This opinion, indeed, found practical 
expression m a bayonet exhibited among the English arms by Mr. Scott 
Tucker. It was hardly half the length of the present bayonet, and Mr. 
Scott Tucker suggests its adoption, on the distinct ground of "the chance 
of crossing bayonets being materially lessened by the introduction of 
breech-loaders." He claims for it the advantages of being comparatively 
light, cheap, strong, handy to di'aw and return, less easily parried, quick 



142 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

for tliriist and withdrawal, free from chance of locking, and out of the 
way when skirmishing. 

Of swords and spears and hand-lances the variety was almost without 
limits. Solingen, as of yore, distinguished* itself in these branches. 
During the early months of the rebellion Solingen blades were regarded 
almost as articles of luxury j they commanded extravagant prices. Here 
are the terms upon which they are supi)lied in Europe: An English 
infantrj^ officer's regulation sword, with steel scabbard, may be obtained 
wholesale for 22 francs; a French line officer's sword, for 24 francs. The 
process by which the Solingen makers impart to their sword blades a 
gilding of peculiar permanence is said to be a secret; so, also, with the 
precise combination of metals used in their manufacture. A good Sol- 
ingen blade can be wound round the body, and when released will 
straighten absolutely. The blades of Toledo, much more expensive, do 
no more. 

Swords of every shape and quality were found in almost all the sec- 
tions of the building, remarkable either for excellence, cheapness, or 
decoration. Among the latter class may be included nearly all weapons 
that came from the east. Turkey, for instance, had no fcAver than 102 
exhibitors, and about the same number of articles. 

In long-range arms of precision there nas been but little progress made 
since the introduction of the conical gas-expanding bullet of 1855, but an 
infinite variety of small imx)rovements have been introduced for the bet- 
ter throwing forth of the projectile. The American rifles were consid- 
ered among the best exhibited. The object of late has not been to seciu^e 
greater length of range, but to obtain a quicker rate of discharge ; hence 
the breech-loaders. Weapons of this make were naturally the features 
of the Exhibition. Twelve years ago breech-loading had been largely 
applied on the continent of Europe to sporting guns, but it has not been 
applied to any considerable extent (except in Prussia) to rifles, either for 
military or sporting purposes. In 1867 it was the accepted principle of 
all military arms. The battle of Sadowa abolished all theories on the 
subject. The principal result showed that the breech-loader was the 
most deadly weapon on that memorable day. Every government is now 
supplying its troops with new pieces on this plan, or altering the old 
ones in conformity with it. Models adapted for either purpose were 
exhibited in every court. The superiority of the breech-loaders having 
been accepted, a new question has arisen, namely, whether the central 
fire, or the i>in or rim flre, is the best. It is a matter which has been fully 
discussed in the report of the American commission appointed to inquire 
into it. 

Nearly all the small-arms on the revolving principle were made in 
accordance with well-known American inventions. The American dis- 
play of these weai)ons was very good. 

A novelty, already referred to, was exhibited in the American depart- 
ment, consisting of a gun fired by electricity. The apparatus is concealed 



CLOTHING. 143 

in the stock. It is claimed for this mode of ignition that there will be 
less danger in preparing the cartridge, inasmuch as it contains no ful- 
minating powder, and that, for a like reason, there will be no risk in the 
transportation of ammunition; also, that the arm cannot be fired acci- 
dentally, and that, as there is no blow of the hammer, there is no inevi- 
table deviation in the aim of the person who fires the piece. The rapidity 
of fire is claimed to be greater, and the escape of gas less, than in other 
arms. All these points have yet to be proved in practice. 

Another curiosity was a muzzle-loading cap gun, having two bullets 
for each barrel, the piece ha\dng two barrels and four hammers. Each 
barrel is loaded with two charges and two balls; the front charges are 
fired by the front set of hammers y when these ha»ve been fired, the sec- 
ond i^air of hammers are brought into play to fire the hinder charges. 
The manufacturer claims that there is no danger of the first charge 
exploding the second. 

And still a last curiosity was a shield in the English collection, from 
which projects, in place of a spike, the muzzle of a breech-loading pistol. 
These shields formed part of the equipment of the body-guard of Henry 
YIII, dated 1530. 

CLASS 38.— TEAVELLmG AND CAMP EQUIPAGES. 

This class includes four principal di\isions, which again include many 
distinct industries. 

The first division, camp equipage, comprises two branches: Articles 
for soldiers and articles for officers; for agents and workmen engaged 
in the construction of railways, of the canal of the Isthmus of Suez, 
&c., and scientific explorers and travellers. During the Crimean war 
the French government caused a great number of tents and other 
objects to be made, which served first for that war and afterwards in the 
Italian campaign. Since that time the demand has been arrested in that 
quarter; but foreign governments buy their cam}) equipage of French 
manufacturers, and this trade amounts on an average to about 5,000,000 
francs per annum. As regards equipments for officers, agents and others, 
the trade amounts to 2,500,000 or 3,000,000 francs, principally for abroad. 

The second series, travelling equipments, is divided into three branches : 
Articles in iron work, leather trunks and portmanteaus, wooden chests 
and ladies' travelling bags. Fifteen years since the first-named articles 
were all Lini)orted ; at present the home manufacture supplies all demands, 
and, out of aproduction which represents about 1,200,000 francs per annum, 
about one-fifth is exported. The m anuf acture of leather trunks and wooden 
boxes, which took its rise in France about thirty years since, has, since the 
opening of railways, assumed an importance which grows every day. The 
value of the trade amounts to 5,000,000 francs a year, and about one- 
third of the production is exported. Twelve years since the jnanufac- 
ture of ladies' leather bags was unknown in France. . It soon afterwards 
was established, and has since grown with considerable rapidity. The 



144 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

value of the mauiifactnre is 8,000,000 francs per auuimi, of whicli three- 
fourths are exported. 

The third series, sporting equipments, includes, besides the articles 
which come property under that denomination, certain other items, 
among which are water-proof and waxed cloths. This class of manu- 
factures, the centre of which is at St. Sylvain (Calvados), has folloAved a 
constantly increasing rate for several years. The manufacture amounts 
to 1,000,000 francs per annum, and one-third of the whole is exported. 
The trade in oiled and water-proof cloths is not very old in France, but 
at the present moment the production not only suffices for all demands 
of the home markets, but allows three-fifths to be exi^orted. The raw 
materials emi)loyed in the construction of the above-named articles are 
cloths and drills, which are produced in the departments of the Il^ord, 
Sarthe, Orne, and Mayenne; leather, which is furnished chiefly from 
Paris 5 card-board, i)rincipally supphed from Lyons 5 poplar wood, which 
comes from various parts of France; and linen tissues, the i^roduce of the 
IS'ord, Seine Inferieure, Haut Ehin, and Ehone. 

Hand labor x^redominates in the manufacture of cajni), travelling and 
sporting equipages, but machines have been used for a long time to per- 
form the sewing, especially in the case of tents and bags, and their 
employment has greatly reduced the market i)rice, and at the same time 
allowed a production of four times the quantity in the space of time. 
The greater part of the workmen are engaged in the shops of the manu- 
facturers, but a certain i3ortion work at home. Women are employed, 
particularly in the tent trade. In Paris those who work the machines 
earn from 3 to 4 francs a day; others only realize from 2 francs to 2 
francs 50 centimes. The men earn from 5 to 6 francs. The iron-workers 
obtain 5 to 8 francs. In the other branches the wages vary from 4 to 6 
francs for the men, and from 2 francs 50 centimes to 3 francs 50 centimes 
in the case of the women. The total number of persons engaged in the 
trade is between 3,600 and 4,000; during the Crimean war the number 
was as high as 10,000. Paris is the chief, if hot the only, centre of 
manufactiu^e for camp and travelling equipments. In the departments 
some towns, such as Lyons, Toulouse, and Tours, a few makers can be 
found, but they are very limited in number and work principally to order. 
The distribution of the trades connected with the production of sporting 
requisites has been already shown. 

It mil have been seen, by what has already been said, that the raw 
materials used by the manufacturers of the articles which come under 
Class 38 are almost exclusively of home i)roduction. The value of the 
trade amounted in the year 1865 to about 25,000,000 francs, and one-half 
of the amount produced was exported. The date of the commencement 
of these A^arious branches of industry is but recent; they li ad scarcely 
arisen at the time of the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1855. Since 
that period, however, they have developed rapidly ; and, at the present 
time, in consequence of the improvements brought to bear in every part 



CLOTHING. 145 

of tlie manufacture and the good taste and finish of the articles, France 
has nothing to fear from any rivals whatever, and can even cope witk 
them in their own markets. 

The fourth series comprises blankets and rugs. This trade, although 
confined to a small number of houses, has assumed very great import- 
ance in France, and employs a considerable number of workmen. The 
trade not only supplies the home market, but exports a part of its pro- 
ductions. The chief materials used are wool and cotton ; hair of differ- 
ent kinds is also employed, but there are no examx^les of this in the Exhi- 
bition. Wool i:)erforms the most important part in the manufacture. That 
of France is the most esteemed, but wool from Africa, the Levant, and 
La Plata is also employed. Algerian wool is capable of being bleached 
to almost absolute whiteness, but its quality is not equal to that of 
France. The manufacture of white woollen blankets presents great dif- 
ficulties ; like that of cloth, it has to pass through all the operations of 
spinning, bulling, &c., mthout i)ossessing the resource of dressing to 
remedy imperfections. The employment of cotton blankets is less com- 
mon, but the simplicity of the method of manufacture and the moderate 
price of the raw material gives them a special interest, as coming within 
the means of the less wealthy classes. It is to be regretted that the 
manufacture of railway rugs is not represented by French producers, 
especially as that industry, which has become very important, is essen- 
tially remarkable for the improvements that have been introduced, and 
which give the productions incontestable practical advantages over those 
of other countries. 

There was a good display of French articles in this class, but consider- 
ing the imi3ortance that travelling has assumed of late years, and never 
more so than in 1867, the competition, if it can be dignified by the name, 
was strikingly poor. There was no novelty worthy of record. America 
had nine exhibitors, among them the Quartermaster General of the 
United States army, who exhibited the material in use for transportation, 
clothing, and equipment in camj) and in garrison. 

CLASS 39.— TOYS. 

"Class 39 comprises: 1. Automatons, (mechanical figiu^es and ani~ 
mals.) 2. Toys in general, including an immense variety of articles, of 
which dolls form the most imj)ortant branch, and among which may 
be mentioned, besides kitchen utensils, dinner and tea things, card-board 
boxes and other articles, dressed figures, animals and arms. The greater 
number of toys are manufactured in Paris. The common wooden play- 
things form the special trade of the town of Liesse, Aisne. Limoges sup- 
plies the China services, which are ornamented in Paris j at Severs and 
Sarrequemines are made these same articles in various kinds of earthen- 
ware. The manufacture of the different kinds of toys necessitates the 
use of the greater portion of the raw material known, and the co-opera- 
10 UE 



146 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

tion of nearly every trade, l^early all tlie Paris toys are made by hand, 
by men and women ; cliildren are not em^iloyed, being unable to bestow 
npon the work the excessive patience and minute attention which it 
demands. Cutting and stamping presses and lathes are used for the 
metal and wooden toys. Few makers employ more than 20 work-people. 
In Paris, the larger number of the men work at the shops ; the number 
of women is about equal to that of the men. The making of dolls' 
clothes alone occupies several hundred women, of whom half work at 
home. The wages are, on an average, 4 francs a day for men, and from 
1 franc 75 centimes to 2 francs a day for women. The makers deliver 
their products to the retail dealers and to agents for exportation. Yery 
few among them export directly to other countries. The manufacture of 
small wares occuiDies about 2,200 people, and business is done in it to 
the amount of 10,500,000 to 11,000,000 francs (£440,000) a year, of which 
two-fifths are realized by the exportation trade. The toy manufacture 
is making rapid progress ; the models are more varied and have more 
taste and elegance ; greater attention is paid to the work and the prices 
have nevertheless diminished. Automatons and mechanical i)laythings 
have been brought to great perfection, and the singing birds are made 
to imitate nature so far as to deceive the most practiced ear. Certain 
instructive toys, moved by electricity, can, without danger, be placed in 
the hands of children. Ii^umbers of dolls are made whose trousseaux 
show so much taste and are so elegant, that they are constantly used by 
dress and bonnet makers as types of Parisian toilettes.^' — Fro^n the trans- 
lation of tlie official catalogue — France. 

It is not necessary to add anything to the above resume^ except that 
the few exhibitors in other countries seldom rivalled and never excelled 
the French mak,ers. 



GROUP V. 

PRODUCTS, RAW AND MANUFACTURED, OF MIN- 
ING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 

Class 40. Mining and Metallurgy.— Class 41. Products of the Cultivation of 
Forests and of the Trades appertaining thereto. — Class 42. Products of 
Shooting, Fishing, and of the Gathering of Fruits obtained without culti- 
vation.— Class 43. Agricultural Products (not used as food) easily Pre- 
served. — Class 44. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Products.— Class 45. Speci- 
mens OF THE Chemical Processes for Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing, and Dress- 
ing.— Class 46. Leather and Skins. 

CLASS 40.— MiNmG a:^d metalluegy. 

This class included : 

Collections and specimens of rocks, minerals, and ores, ornamental 
stones, marble, seriDcntine, onyx, hard rocks, refractory substances, earths 
and clays. 

Various mineral products ; sulphur, rock salt, salt from salt springs, 
bitumen and petroleum. 

Specimens of fuel in its natural state and carbonized; compressed 
coal. 

Metals in a crude state } pig iron, iron, steel, cast steel, copper, lead, 
silver, zinc, &c. ; alloys. 

Products of washing and refining precious metals, of gold-beating, &c. 

Electro-metallurgy; objects gilt, silvered, or coated with copper or 
steel by galvanic process. 

Products of the working of metals ; rough castings, bells, wrought 
iron, iron for special purposes, sheet-iron and tin plates, iron i)lates for 
casing ships and constructions, copper, lead, and zinc sheets. 

Manufactured metals ; blacksmiths' work, wheels and tires, unwelded 
pipes, chains, &c. 

Wire-drawing; needles, jnns, wire-work and wire gauze; perforated 
sheet iron. 

HardAvare, iron-mongery, edge tools, copper, tinware, &c. ; other metal 
manufactures. 

As almost all the countries that participated in the Exposition were 
able to send raw materials, the number of exhibitors in this class was 
very great, as will be seen by the following list, which shows the number 
of exhibitors from each country of importance : 



France 349 

Algeria 33 

HoUand 7 



Belgium 104 

Prussia 515 

Hesse 2 



148 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 



Bavaria. 25 

Wiirtemberg 9 

Austria 182 

Switzerland 14 

Spain 183 

Portugal 39 

Greece 79 



Sweden 97 

Norway 19 

Eussia 91 

Italy 262 

Turkey 21o 

United States 6S 

Great Britain 137 



Colonies and dependencies of Great Britain : 



Barbadoes 3 

Canada 6S 

Cape of Good Hope 8 

Malta 6 

:N'atal 15 



IS'ewfoundland 12 

i^ova Scotia 22 

Queensland 10 

South Australia 17 

Victoria 6 



It should be observed that in the case of Prussia, and perhaps some 
of the other countries, each mine, or company, or individual furnishing 
specimens of minerals to the collections was enumerated as an exhibitor, 
thus repeating many times the same product. If the names of aU the 
donors to the collections from the United States had been sent in, the list 
would, in like manner, amount to many hundreds. 

In neatness and careful preparation the Prussian mineral collection 
was the finest in the Exposition. The specimens were aU rather large, 
but were uniformly trimmed and weU arranged. The whole was illus- 
trated by numerous well drawn and colored maps and sections of mines, 
and by models of furnaces. The collection comi^rised the products of 
the mines and quarries of the country, and was systematized and arranged 
under the orders of the minister of commerce and publicworks by Doctor 
Wedding, mining engineer, who received a silver medal from the jury as 
a recognition of his labors. It was accompanied by a special printed 
catalogue. The principal minerals shown were coal, iron ores, copper 
ores, and argentiferous lead ores. The salt mines of Stassfurt were repre- 
sented by a quantity of the salt cut from the mine in large blocks and 
built up in the Exposition building into the shape of a half dome. A very 
interesting series of salts of potash found above the salt bed were also 
shown. These potash salts are now largely used for the preparation of 
manures and for other purposes requiring potash. The supply is be- 
lieved to be practically inexhaustible, and it has abeady greatly dimin 
ished the demand for wood ashes. 

Spain made an exceedingly interesting exhibit of its ores in a building 
erected si^ecially for the purpose and for the agricultural products, in 
tlie Park. The prominent obj ects were blocks of cinnabar from the famous 
mine of Almaden, which is still largely worked. 

In the Russian section there was an interesting suite of models of 
famous meteorites, and many pepites and nuggets of native platinum from 
the Siberian muxes of Prince DemidofI:. The display of Avrouglit and sheet 
iron w^as very good, but the chief attraction was the variety of rough 
and polished precious stones, and large vases and candelabras made of 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 149 

malachite, jasper and rhodonite, (described more particularly under class 
15, Group III.) 

Among other notable objects was a mass of beautiful malachite, very 
solid, weighing over two tons, from the mine of Prince Demidoff. This 
mine was discovered in 1814 and has yielded 35,000 pounds of malachite, 
about 700 tons since 1840, besides a large amount of copper. A mass of 
native copper sent from the Kirghiz steppes, Siberia, and weighing about 
1,500 i)ounds, much resembles the specimens from Lake Superior, and 
like them contains some native silver. The most remarkable exhibit 
of graphite was made by J. P. Alibert, of Mount Batougol, near Irkoutsk, 
Siberia. A large glass case was filled with blocks of the graphite cut 
and fashioned mto various forms and exhibiting a line polish. 

MINERALS FROM THE UNITED STATES. 

The mineral exhibition of the United States was very creditable. The 
coal, iron, lead, copper, zinc, gold, silver, and quicksilver, and the petro- 
leums of Pennsylvania and California, were all represented. Among the 
iron-ores may be noted a large mass from the Iron mountain of Missouri, 
blocks from Lake Superior, and masses from the iron region of Lake 
Champlain. There was also a large representation of our limonite ores, 
and of the franklinite from New Jersey. The recently discovered black 
hand iron ore was there also, and was doubtless thought by most persons 
to be coal, it is so black and coal-like in appearance. This ore is said to 
form a bed five feet thick directly below the anthracite coal, or only 150 
feet from it. It contains 39 per cent, of iron and 35 of combustible matter . 
Its enormous value can hardly be estimated. 

Several large and very rich masses of silver ore from the Poorman lode, 
Idaho, attracted much attention, and received recognition from the jury 
by the award of the gold medal. These masses occupied the summit of a 
j)yramidal mass of ores in which were found blocks of iron ore from Mis- 
souri Iron moimtain and Lake Superior, copper and ingots from Lake 
Superior, coal of Pennsylvania, silver ore from California, and rock-salt 
fr^om Louisiana. 

The copper of Lake Superior was well represented by specimens of the 
crystallized metal and of the minerals which accompany it, sent by Mr. 
Bigelow of Boston. 

The gold-bearing quartz of Cahfornia, and the ores of copper, quick- 
silver, lead, iron, manganese, and other metals, together with the salt, 
borax, sulphur, coal, and petroleum from the same State, were exhibited 
by a collection classified and sent forward by W. P. Blake, the State 
commissioner, and which received a silver medal. The gold ores of Col- 
orado were shown by a large and brilliant collection arranged by J. P. 
Whitney, of Boston, commissioner from the Territorj^, who received a 
gold medal for the display. 

The Chester Iron Company, of Massachusetts made a very interesting 
exhibit of the ores of iron and emery, with the associated minerals from 



150 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Chester, Massacliusetts. This emery was discovered a few years since 
by Dr. 0. T. Jackson, of Boston, in the ores of the company, and it is nov/ 
largely explored. The jury signalized the value of this emery, and of the 
discovery, by awarding a silver medal to the company and a silver medal 
to Dr. Jackson as the discoverer. 

The minerals of the United States section were catalogued by Mr. 
D'Aligny, commissioner, to whom the jury awarded a silver medal. 

IRON AND STEEL. 

Wrought iron, in all its forms, figured largely in this department of 
the exhibition. Enormous bars, plates, and girders were to be seen in 
the English, French, Eussian, and Prussian sections. The iron ores of 
Sweden were represented by large blocks which formed the base of a 
p^Tamid of iron bars and rods, square, round, and twisted, together 
with samples of the various grades of pig iron and bars of steel. 

The manufactures of the cast-steel works of E. Krupp, in Essen, Prus- 
sia, were represented by a cast-steel ingot, locomotive tires, railway 
axles, junction rings for steam boilers, crank shafts for marine steam 
engines, and plates or girders, besides several breech -loading rifled guns, 
all of cast steel. 

The ingot of steel is the largest ever made. It is about 10 feet high 
and 56 inches in diameter, and weighs 40 tons. The upper end of the 
block is forged into an octagonal shape, and the whole is to be forged 
under a 50-tons hammer into a marine crank shaft. Oast-steel tires for 
locomotives form a very considerable portion of the manufactures of this 
establishment. IsTearly 40,000 are made each year. They are all forged 
out of ingots without welding. This is accomplished in the following 
manner: The ingots are first forged out into long j)lates, from which 
rectangular pieces of the weight of the intended tires are cut off. A slit 
is then made in the centre of these pieces and the opening is enlarged 
by wedges until a ring is formed, and this ring is ultimately worked into 
a tire in a rolling mill. 

One great attraction of the Exposition was the enormous steel gun 
from this establishment. This was 210 inches long, 14 inches bore, and 
weighed 50 tons. It is intended for the arming of coast batteries to 
defend them from the attacks of plated shii:)S. It required sixteen months' 
work day and night to comi)lete this monster gun. 

The works of Mr. Krupp cover about 450 acres, 200 of which are roofed 
over. He employs 8,000 men, and 2,000 more at the iron and coal mines. 
The value of the yearly production of these works is said to be over 
$7,500,000. 

The exhibition made by the Bochum Oompany, Westphalia, is also 
exceedingly interesting. Four bells of cast steel weigh, respectively, 
1,800, 4,500, 9,000, 14,750 kilograms. The largest is nearly 10 feet in 
diameter at the mouth. This comi^any also show a string of 22 car- 
wheels all cast in one piece connected at the Imb, the wliole Aveighing 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC 151 

nearly 10,000 kilograms; and also the cj-linder of a locomotive engine 
with steam pipes and box and flanges, complete in one piece of solid cast 
steel as it came from the mould. 

The exhibitions of steel, iron, &c., in the French department were 
remarkably line and complete. The largest ingot of cast steel weighed 
25,000 kilogram, or about half as much as the great Krupp ingot. 
Beautifully finished «teel cannon and fittings Avere shown in connection 
with thick armor plates for ships, some of which had been mdented 
by pointed shot from heavy rifled guns. These guns and steel ingots 
were placed in buildings in the Park, where a great variety of the pro- 
ducts of iron and steel works were arranged together. 

One of the most interesting exhibits in the whole Exposition was the 
collection of ornamental iron castings from the foundries of Durenne at 
Sommevoire, consisting of bas-reliefs, busts, statuettes, and figures of 
the size of life. The success which has there been attained in the repro- 
duction of fine Avorks of art is wonderful. The castings are beautifully 
smooth and sliari3, and when covered with copper, by the galvano-plas- 
tic process, they have the appearance and durability of bronze. 

In the English section, Messrs. Johnson, Matthey & Co., of London, 
exhibited an extensive collection of the precious metals, and of large 
stills made from platinum for the use of manufacturers of sulphuric 
acid. One of these stills was sufficiently capacious to concentrate eight 
tons of acid a day, and was valued at $12,500. These stills are made 
without joints, soldered with gold as formerly, the joints having been 
formed by autogenous soldering. There was also shown in the same 
case an ingot of platinum forged into one mass large enough to make a 
five-ton still. The collection contained many of the rarest metals, such 
as ruthenium, osmium, iridium, &c. The total value of the exhibit was 
estimated at $100,000. 

CLASS 4L— FOREST PRODUCTS AIsTD INDUSTRIES. 

The collections of specimens of forest trees, of timber, boards, and of 
oruamental wood, were very extensive. France, Austria, Canada, Norway, 
and Sweden, Russia, Brazil, and Australia were the principal exhibitors. 
Austria, by the Administrations of the forests of the different states, sent 
the trunks of oak, fir, i)ine, and other trees, vdth a great variety of 
planks, boards and timber for building purposes. The trunks of the 
large trees were sawed into lengths convenient for transportation, and 
were afterwards united upon the ground. The great size of these objects 
prevented their being received into the buildings, and they were placed 
in a group together in the Austrian section of the Park. 

The exportation of Austrian woods is increasing, and has already 
reached the total value of 75,000,000 francs. Full statistics are given in 
a brochure prepared under the orders of the minister of commerce and 
political economy, and entitled ''LesEichesses forestieres del'Autriche 
et leur exportation" Vienna, 1867. 



152 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The Canadian exliibit attracted mucli attention by the size of the hewed 
timbers of fir and pine, and the beanty of the specimen slabs of the wal- 
nnt, maple, oak, ash and other forest trees. This collection was pre- 
l^ared nnder the direction of the Abbe Brnnet, and was accompanied by 
a complete descrip tive catalogue, forming a pamphlet of 64 pages. A gold 
medal was awarded by the jury. 

The Brazilian woods were tasteftdly arranged in a room, with the walls 
and ceiling painted in imitation of the forests of the country. 

The saw-mills and lumbermen of E'orway and Sweden united in send- 
ing samples of their sawed and planed lumber suitable for building. 
There are in IN'orway 3,300 saw-mills, and the annual i^roduction of lum- 
ber is said to be worth about $12,000,000. The exj^orts in 1865 reached 
a Yalue of 45,600,000 francs— about $9,120,000. A little over one-half of 
these exports consist of sawed lumber, and the remainder is in the 
form of logs and timbers j the latter are sent chiefly to Holland and 
England. 

The State of California failed to send the cross-section of the great 
tree Sequoia gigantea, as proposed. It was found that a cross-section of 
a tree 30 feet in diameter would weigh several tons, and that it could not 
X30ssibly be transported from the forest in season for the exhibition. 
There were several samples of a beautiful ornamental wood from that 
State, a species of arhuttiSythe ^'madrona" or 'laurel," which were remark- 
able for their beauty of grain. An ornamental door made of this wood 
by J. D. Boyd, of San Francisco, was very beautiful in this respect, and 
also in finish. There were contributions from the States of Illinois, 
Missouri, Kansas, and Wiscoi^sin. 

PORESTS OF FRANCE. 

The French exliibition was beautifully arranged in a saloon of gallery 
y, at the end adjoining the main avenue. Sections of all the i)rincipal 
kinds of forest trees of the emx)ire were ranged around the waUs, and the 
interspaces were filled mth moss. The tables in the centre supported 
models of the miUs, and of the machines and tools used in cutting and 
preparing the timber for market. The following general exhibit of the 
extent of forests of France, and of the industries immediately con- 
nected with them, was prepared by the committee of admission of the 
class, and is extracted from the translated catalogue. 
'^ The objects shown in this class faU under foiu' principal di^ilsions: 
''1. Collections and models, including specimens of all kinds of tim. 
ber and woods indigenous to or naturalized on the soil of France; the 
tools, imi)lements and machines used in the forest, and in the various 
occupations carried on there j models of habitations and buildings, such 
as keepers' lodges and cottages, establishments for sawing, for the nispec- 
tion of timber and other operations; plans, in relief, of various works 
executed in important localities; the replanting of the Alps, and the 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 153 

most remarkable methods emi)loyed for clearing forests situated iu hilly 
countries; saw-mills^ water-mills, &c. 

^' 2. The more important products of forest industry, such as cork, 
fibres, tanning materials, charred ^YOod and charcoal. 

''3. Timber cut up and prepared; mouldings, shaped woods, clap- 
boards, staves and other split wood. 

^'4. Coarse basket work, wooden-shoe making, &c. 

"Amidst these various products is exhibited the forest chart of France, 
which shows in the most striking manner the importance of the wood- 
lands of the coimtry, and the remarkable relation which exists between 
them and the geological constitution of the soil. The collections of class 
41 will be completed on the most interesting manner, by a series of 
specimens of destructive forest insects, with a selection of timber ravaged 
by the fructifications of a certain number of exotic coniferge which must 
be regarded as naturalized; lastly by a series of publications on practi- 
cal or scientific questions relating to sylvaculture. The collections of 
transverse sections of trees, and of other specimens of timber, will exhibit 
the marvellous x)roductiveness of the soil of France in ligneous matters. 
The many kinds of timber and other woods mil be represented by numer- 
ous sami^les from various i)arts of the country where the trees which 
furnish them exist under the most varied conditions. The examination 
of these specimens will show how the qualities of the same species of 
tree vary according to the fertility, the exposure and the mineralogical 
composition of the soil. 

" The most important wooded spots of France are : in the north, 
the forest of Fontainebleau, 17,300 hectares;^ Oompiegne, 14,000; Eam- 
bouiUet, 13,000 ; YiUers Ootterets, 11,500 ; Mormal, 9,000 ; in the east, 
the forest of Chaux, 11,500 hectares ; LaHarth, 14,500 ; Hagueneau, 15,000 ; 
Dabo, 11,000 ; Haye, 7,000 ; Grande Chartreuse, 6,200 ; in the west, the 
forest of Lyons, 10,500 hectares ; Berce Perceigne, 10,500 ; Ecouves, 7,500 ; 
in the centre of France, the forest of Orleans, 37,000 hectares; Troncais, 
10,500; Yiezron, 5,200; Chateauroux, 5,100 ; Bertranges Guerigny, 5,300 ; 
in the south, the forest of La Maitrise de Quillau, 11,000 hectares; Soule, 
7,000; Lannet, 5,000. 

" The woodlands of the empire amount to 8,900,000 hectares, divided as 
follows : 

" 1. 1,100,000 hectares belonging to the state, of which 49 per cent, is in 
timber — 539,000 hectares, and 51 x)er cent, in coppice, with or without tim- 
ber — 561,000 hectares. 

"2. 2,200,000 hectares, the property of communes or of public establish- 
ments, of which 36 per cent, is covered with timber — 720,000 hectares, 
and 64 jyer cent, coppice, with timber or coppice alone — 1,280,000 hec- 
tares. 

" 3. 5,800,000 hectares, the property of private owners, in timber, 17 
per cent., 980,000 ; in coppice, with or without timber, 4,814,000. 

^ A hectare is equal to 2 acres, ] rood, 35 perches. 



154 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

'^The annual products of these forests are in tlie following proportions : 
3 for the state land, 2.75 for those of the communes, and 2 for those 
belonging to private owners, giving a gross total of about 20,000,000 
cubic metres, viz : timber and working woods, 2,000,000 cubic metres ; 
wood for fuel, 18,000,000 cubic metres. 

" These resoiu-ces are on the increase in consequence of the numerous 
improvements in management and of the construction and amelioration 
of the means of transport undertaken upon a large scale during the past 
ten years in the forest lands of the state and the communes. But the 
production is still far from sufficient to sui)i)ly the demands of consump- 
tion. 

" The annual consumption in France is as follows : 

" 1. In timber for constructive purposes and wood used in manufactures. 
The naval and mercantile marine, 118,000 cubic metres 5 artillery and 
engineering, 30,000 ; railways, 600,000 ; building, 1,600,000 ; lath wood 
and espaliers, &c., 3,700,000 5 river na\dgation, carriage buildings, furni- 
ture, utensds, &c., 4,300,000. Total, 10,348,000 cubic metres. 

" 2. Fire-wood, 30,000,000 of steres,i and charcoal, 15,000,000 of steres. 
The consumption thus exceeds the production by the following quanti- 
ties : In timber and wood for manufacture, about 8,000,000 cubic metres ; 
in fire-wood, 15,000,000 steres. The balance is principally drawn from 
l^Torway, Eussia, Germany, and Italy. The importation of common 
woods of all kinds, which in 1855 did not amount in value to 70,000,000 
francs, was 154,000,000 in 1865. Diuing the same period of ten years, 
the importation rose from less than 9,000,000 to 31,000,000. The neces- 
sarily restricted limits of this introduction renders it impossible to men- 
tion all the manufactiu^es in which wood is employed. The number is 
very large and the entire catalogue of the exhibition furnishes the most 
complete inventory of the usages to which wood is applied. We shall 

ass in review, successively, the articles directly connected with forest 
products, and which are specially represented in class 41. 

CORK. 

" Cork is the substance lying beneath the true bark of a particular kind 
of oak, called the cork-oak, and which grows principally in Italy, Corsica, 
Algeria, Spain, and the south of France. The tree begins to furnish cork 
at the age of from twelve to fifteen years ; but the first cork is of poor 
quality and only fit to make floats and other coarse objects, and Spanish 
black, which is nothing more than cork burned in closed vessels. After 
the first layer has been removed the cork bark is deposited with more 
regularity, and then yields materials fit for the finer purposes, such as the 
makhig of Avine and other corks, sheets, and other weU known objects 
used for many purposes. From the i^eriod already mentioned, the cork 
may be removed from the tree regularly once in 8 or 10 years, and the 
same tree will yield cork 12 or 15 times. Eaw cork, or that Avhich has 
1 A stere consists of 35.3174 feet. 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 155 

merely been rasped, comes principally from Italy, Spain, Portugal, and 
Algeria. Spain supplies nearly the whole of the manufactured cork o^* 
commerce. Seville is the most important entrei)ot of this product. Its 
principal application is in the making of bottle corks ; but floats and a 
thousand small articles, in which lightness is a necessity, are also made 
of the same materials. The imi^ortations into France were, in 1855, 532 J 
tons, of the total value of about 257,224 francs. In 1865, they had risen 
to 3,855J tons, of the value of 2,502,696 fi-ancs. The export amounted 
to 169J tons in 1855, and in 1865 had risen to 1,319J tons, of the value of 
1,236,900 fi\ancs. 

CHARCOAL. 

"Charcoal is the result of the slow and imi:)erfect combustion of wood. 
It is manufactured in two different methods. The first and most general 
is that which is practiced in the forest itself in mounds or stacks con- 
taining from 40 to 50 steres. This process fields hard, sonorous charcoal, 
which Ughts ^^ith difficulty, but which, once in a state of ignition, gives 
great heat and biu-ns for a considerable time. The second process con- 
sists in distilling the wood in closed retorts -, but the charcoal thus obtained 
has not the qualities of the former. It is friable, very light, very porous, 
and highly inflammable. The quality of the charcoal (valued according 
to its density) corresponds pretty closely with that of the wood from 
which it is made. The method of burning, whether fast or slow, the age 
of the wood, the nature of the soil in which the tree grew, aU affect the 
quahty and weight of the charcoal. Charcoal-making is the object of an 
extensive industry in many European countries. In France it employs 
a great number of workmen, who sometimes pass whole years in the 
forest. Still our production is not equal to the demand, and from 150,000 
to 200,000 cubic metres of charcoal are imported annually from Belgium, 
Germany, and Italy. In 1856 the imports Avere 204 tons, of the total 
value of 3,670,128 francs. In 1865 they had fallen to 151 tons and 
2,876,000 francs. In the same iDcriod of 10 years the exports grew from 
1,209 tons, of the value of 108,800 francs, to 6,698 tons and 602,800 francs. 

TANNING BARKS. 

' ' This expression is api)lied generally to the bark of indigenous trees used 
in the tanning of hides and skins. Such bark is fiu^nished by the oak, beech, 
chestnut, AviUow, white birch, and fir trees. The departments of Ardennes, 
Moselle, Meuse, Meurthe, Bas-Ehin, Mevre, Yonne, Saone-et-Loire, Cote- 
d'Or, Dle-et-Yilaine, Deux Sevres, Gironde, Yaucluse, Herault, Bouches- 
du-Ehoiie, Yar, and Corsica, supply nearly all the bark for the tanner's pur- 
poses. The last named departments, especially, sui)ply oak bark, which 
is almost entirely consumed in the neighborhood. Algeria now furnishes 
considerable quantities of tanning bark, which is exported, and of which 
France alone consumes annually about 2,500 tons. In 1865 the importa- 
tion of tanning bark into France amounted to 7,678 tons, of the total 



156 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

value of 930,000 francs. In the same years tlie exportation was 15,900 
tons, valued at 1,900,000 francs. In 1855 the imi)ort was only 2,216 tons, 
and the export 558 tons. 

RESINS. 

'^ The maritime pine tree is the only tree in France from which resin is 
extracted. The cultivation of this tree constitutes the X)rincipal, if not 
the only, wealth of the district lying between Bordeaux and Bayonne. 
According to the nature of the soil, the pine is tapped for resin between 
the a ges of 20 and 40 years. The operation consists in making long incisions 
in the trunk, whence the resin exudes and is collected in various ways. 
The natural results of bleeding the pine trees, are : the soft gum or resin, 
which by distillation yields turpentine j the galipots, an almost solid 
substance, which, by means of evaporation, forms in stalactites all down 
the tree j the crottas, a mixture of the two former products ; the barras, 
which are the galipots entirely dry and adhering to the tree. A pine 
tree 60 to 70 years old furnishes, on the average, about six or eight 
kilograms of raw material, of which about one-third is galipots and 
barras. The American war gave a gTcat impulse to the resin trade. The 
following statistics wiU give an idea of the results in 1855. The exports 
of French resins did not amount to more than 4,133 tons, of the total 
value of 2,250,000 francs. In 1865 they had risen to the enormous total 
of 5,250 tons, worth 27,200,000 francs. The imi^ortations amounted in 
1865 to 2,960 tons, of the value of 2,400,000 francs. 

BASKET-MAKINa. 

"Coarse basket-work, which alone is inckided in class 41, includes 
bakers' baskets, hami)ers, hottes or creels, &c. The osier is the chief mater- 
ial used in this trade, which is i)rincipally exercised in the valleys, of Yer, 
Aubeaton and Hkson, in the Aisne, where osiers grow in large quantities. 
In the arrondissement of Yervins alone there are 3,000 families engaged 
in basket-making, who produce more than 2,500,000 francs' worth i)er 
annum, and of which two-thirds are exported to England and America. 
The importations amounted in 1855 to 105 tons, of a total value of 321,000 
francs, and in 1865 only to 59 tons, of the value of 53,000 francs. The 
importation of osiers in bundles, which in 1855 was 105 tons, had risen 
in 1865 to 180 tons, of the value of 22,000 francs. The exports grew in 
the same period from 59 tons to 1,700 tons, the value of the last-named 
total being estimated at 370,000 francs. 

COOPERING. 

"Class 41 includes the works of the cooper, but the dimensions of the 
articles exhibited precluded their admission within the building, and 
they were placed beneath a shed in the Park. This annexe contained 
a vat and various specimens of cooperage from different localities. The 
wood employed in this manufacture is called merrainj that is to say, oak 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 157 

or other wood split^ according to tlie natural grain of the tree, into planks 
of various sizes, by means of a special tool, called a coulter. Merrains 
are produced of all dimensions, from 8 to 117 inches in length, from 3 
to 10 inches TST.de, and from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in 
thickness. 

'^The chief places of production are Germany, Eussia, Turkey, and the 
United States. The exports of the last-named country supply the greater 
part of the Eiu^opean cooperage. The best woods for making merrains 
are oak and chestnut. In Languedoc they also employ the white mul- 
berry. 

'^The importation of merrains amounted in 1855 to 15,600,000 pieces, 
estimated at the value of 10,900,000 francs. In 1865 it had grown to 
37,000,000 pieces, and 26,300,000 francs. E"early the whole of the split 
wood imported into France is consumed in the country. The total 
exports in 1865 only amounted to 630,000 pieces, of the value of 390,000 
fi^ancs." 

CLASS 42.— PEODUCTS OF THE CHASE A^^D FISHEEIES— 
UXCULTIYATED PEODUCTS. 

(REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF ADMISSION FOR FRANCE.) 

" This class mcludes a large number of natural products, having under- 
gone but shght preparation. It also comi)rehends skins and furs, which 
represent a very complicated trade, and demands, j)articularly for the 
made-up furs, much special knowledge, a great deal of taste, and, to a 
certain extent, that creative power peculiar to the Parisian manufac- 
turers in matters of dress and furniture. 

" The natural i)roducts belonging to class 42, and which demand but 
slight preparation, are elephant and hippopotamus teeth, sponged tor- 
toise-shell, mother-of-pearl, horse hair, the various kinds of hair employed 
in hat-making, fish oils, and collections of dried plants. We must also 
mention the collections of stuffed animals, for the study of natural his- 
tory, the preparation of which belongs both to the domains of art and 
science. As to the trade in and i^reparation of skins, and the making 
up of furs, we think it necessary to make it the object of a special 
notice ; because this kind of, a product represents not only a considerable 
trade, but also a very difficult branch of industry on account of the dye- 
ing and making up of the skins. 

FURS. 

"Paris first, and Lyons next, are the principal centres of commerce for 
skins and made-up fm^s. These articles are emi)loyed both for di-ess and 
domestic use. Of fin's are made muffs, cloaks, tippets, coat collars, boas, 
cuffs, i)elisses, carpets, cushions, trimmings for dresses, foot muffs for 
carriages, &c. The Parisian trade employs the most beautiful, as well 
as the most ordinary skins — from the rarest kinds of sable down to 



158 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

glossy rabbit skiiis, of lowest price. Articles of fur are also made with 
swan, grebe, and goose skins. The trade of clipping hair for hat-mak- 
ing also brings into use rabbit and hair skins. It is in Paris that arti- 
cles in fur for dress and furnishing are most exquisitely made up. The 
various operations that skins are submitted to are — firstly, dressing, 
glossing, and dyeing. These preparations are done by special workmen, 
who work by the piece. When the skins arrive at the shops they have 
undergone no i^reparation whatever. They are dyed with the brush or 
in the vat when the skin is to be dyed also. The number of women 
employed in the trade is about equal to that of the men. The workmen 
are divided into dressers, giossers, fullers, cleaners, and cutters; the 
women are seamstresses and mounters. The salaries of the men vary 
from 6 to 7 francs -, those of the women from 3 francs to 3 francs 50 cen- 
times daily. 

'^The fur trade in France includes three classes of dealers : 1. The col- 
orers of skins; 2. Wholesale skin and fur merchants; 3. Furriers or 
makers-up of furs. 

''The price of furs varies to infinity — from the rabbit skin, worth about 
50 centimes, to the Siberian sable skin, the price of which rises to 500 
francs. The greater part of the best furs are sold in Paris ; the rest are 
bought in the departments and abroad. 

"Paris possesses about 30 hair-clipping establishments, which produce 
annually material amounting in value to 20,000,000 francs. The horse- 
hair trade is also very imi)ortant, and gives rise to a considerable move- 
ment. 

"A large amount of business is also done in sponges. The dealers who 
are engaged in this branch of trade are at once fishers, importers, and 
cleaners of sponges. The preparations to which sponges are submitted 
increase their value from six to eight per cent. 

"It is difficult to state precisely the value of the furs made up in 
France; but it is very considerable. It is believed to attain, in Paris 
alone, the sum of 20,000,000 francs, including the sale of glossy rabbit 
skins. About 5,000,000 worth of the total is delivered for exportation. 

" Since 1855 the fur trade has developed to a considerable extent. This 
flourishing condition is due to the fur dealers of Paris, who are inces- 
santly creating new i^atterns in aU kinds of new made-up articles in fur, 
and who have thus maintained that supremacy in taste and design which 
have so long been accorded to France in all matters pertaining to arti- 
cles of dress and fashionable requisites. 

"There were about 750 exhibitors in this class, displaying naturally a 
vast and heterogeneous mass of objects. Although many of these arti- 
cles were of the higliest interest in a philosophical, geograi)hical, and 
social point of view, they were not of a nature to require much descrip- 
tion. Furs of all sorts were, from their value and beauty, the principal 
attraction of the class. There was a fine collection from the French 
colonial possessions in ^ew Caledonia, Guadaloupe, Gaboon, &c. The 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 159 

raw industrial products of these little-known regions were shown with 
great taste and sldll. But of the finest sorts of furs there were hardly 
any important specimens. The material is so easily damaged by dust 
that manufacturers hesitate to expose their better classes of goods. The 
French exhibitors, who had less to risk in the way of transportation than 
any other nation, made the best display. The taste of their work and 
the labor bestowed upon it left nothing to be desired. A grebe mantle, 
of extraordinary workmanship, was exhibited by Mr. Dehnar, of 
Paris. Each single feather was sewed in separately on a basis of silk, the 
darker feathers being formed into patterns of wreaths round the skirt. 
One of the most interesting novelties, or rather revivals of a method 
which Avas in use many years ago, was the galonnement of furs. Some 
of the finest and most expensive furs, especially those from northern 
regions, such as the sable and the silver fox, are almost too close and 
heavy in the original state of the skin. To obviate this, the pelt is cut 
up into strips about a third of an inch in width, and between two of 
these is inserted a strip of equal width of silk. The strips are carefully 
matched in color and united Avith the greatest dexterity, so that the fur 
completely closes OA^er the seam. A fabric is thus produced more open, 
light, and better toned than the original skin, while the latter is econo- 
mized by the substitution of silk for a portion of the fabric. It is 
claimed that the articles thus made are more wholesome and much 
cheaper. 

"Eussia had a fine assortment of fursj but, for the reasons already 
glA^en, it was, except perhaps in indiA^dual specimens, inferior to that 
exhibited in the French court. 

"Messrs. Gunther, of 'New York, exhibited some fine specimens of 
l!*[orth American furs and a collection of fur-bearing animals, A^ery A\^ell 
prepared. 

''The fleeces of rabbits and hares, used by hatters, made a large dis- 
play. Tliey are shorn and prepared with great skill. Up to the begin- 
ning of the present century hatters i)repared the materials of their man- 
ufactures, from the crude skins, on their own premises. About the year 
1826, OAving to the steadily-increasing demand, the process of cutting 
and preparing the fleeces for making the felt was separated into a dis- 
tinct trade. The material is used principally in the manufacture of soft 
hats. 

" The increasing scarcity of whalebone has led to many interesting 
experiments in the way of proAilding a substitute. Buffalo's horn seems 
to answer the i)urpose satisfactorily. From the close similarity in the 
structure of the two substances there seems to be no reasons why this 
substitute should not answer most of the purposes to which Avhalebone 
is now applied. The horns, after undergoing a special process, are cut 
into strii>s, which are com^Dressed and straightened and rendered suita- 
ble to CA^ery i^urpose of the dress-makers' art. There is another imita- 
tion of Avhalebone in compressed cane, but it does not seem to answer 
the purpose so successfully." 



160 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. . 

CLASS 43.— AGRICULTUEAL PEODUCTS, NOT USED AS FOOD, 
EASILY PEESEEYED. 

Many, indeed most of the articles referred to in tlie following and suc- 
ceeding classes of this group, have been or will be referred to under other 
heads. We continue to qiiote from the catalogue simx)ly because the 
])articulars are interesting and late : 

OLIYE OIL. 

"The most important article in class 43 was the oil derived from all 
sources. Oil, in some way or other, plays a most important part in the 
domestic economy of Eiu^ope. It is not only the source of light, but, to 
a great extent, of life itself. A large portion of southern Eui?ope would 
X)erish were the olive crop to fail. 

"Oils are obtained from an immense variety of nuts,grains, fishes, and 
minerals. All these are more or less edible, but real olive oil is the one 
which most readily agrees with sensitive stomachs, and which, for cen- 
turies, has partly taken the place of meat and butter with large and 
intelligent populations. 

"The range within which the olive grows corresponds with the zone 
within w^hich maize and rice can be cultivated. It is much more con- 
fined than that of the cereals. Its northern limit may be roughly i^laced 
in the most southern provinces of France, and it does not extend far 
into the interior of Africa. Spain, Italy, the islands of the Mediterranean 
sea, and the Greek archipelago, are the most civilized places wliere 
it flourishes. Asia Minor and Syria, and the whole northern coast of 
Africa fr^om Morocco to the borders of Egjq^t, are covered with it. 

" The olive requires but little attention, and is content with a poor, stony 
soil. This hardiness is rewarded by long life. Olive trees live far beyond 
the memory of man, and some indeed pass the ordinary limits of tradi- 
tion. At Pescio, in Italy, there is a tree which can be proved, histori- 
cally, to be more than 700 years old; and the trees on the Mount of 
Olives, if not those that witnessed the Passion, are at least the sprouts 
from their roots. Olive trees grow hoUow as they grow old, the trunk 
splitting into fantasticaUy-shaped masses, which imite higher up. To 
support them it is often found necessary to fill up the interstices and 
build up the trunk with stones. 

"The best olive oil is that of Lucca and Tuscany. The i^rovince oil, 
know^n as the oil of Aix of commerce, is the most esteemed for the table. 
It owes all its merits to the admirable manipulation of the manufactur- 
ers, for the olives which yield it are the poorest of any country. 

SEEDS, FLAX, HEMP, AND AVOOL. 

"Class 43 comprehends an immense variety of products, for, T\ith the 
exception of cereals, fruits, cattle, and forest produce, it represents the 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 161 

whole of tlie productions of the soil. All these can, nevertheless, be 
arranged in 11 i^rincipal series : 

'^1. Seeds, which include the collections of the various seeds emi^loyed 
in agriculture and horticulture. 2. Textile materials of vegetable origin, 
and principally flax and hemp. 3. Wool in the fleece, washed and 
im washed. 4. Cocoons of the various kinds, of silk- worms and raw 
silk. 5. Tobacco in the leaf or prepared, for the various uses of consump- 
tion. 6. Hops. 7. Plants for forage. 8. Oils of all kinds. 9. Honey 
and wax. 10. The various agricultural products emifloyed in trade, 
such as the dyestuffs and the different plants which supply materials 
apx)licable to the arts and manufactures. 11. The mass of products 
which exhibit the progress and condition of the rural and agricultural 
industry of a district. 

^'The trade of seeds for sowing is becoming more and more important 
in France. On one hand, the agriculturists pay greater attention to pro- 
curing varieties remarkable for certain qualities ; and on the other, the 
taste for horticulture is increasing every day. Some houses have 
acquired a European reputation for the care given to the selection of 
seeds, and many establishments have cultivated largely, exclusively 
with a view to produce seeds of first-rate quality. 

'•Flax and hemp are the two plants most cultivated in France for the 
manufacture of stufls. The cultivation of flax especially, favored by the 
dearness of cotton, has increased, during the last few years, to a large 
extent. The iDrincipal centres of production are Flanders, Picardy, 
]!:Tormandy, and Brittany. Hemj) continues to be cultivated not only 
wherever flax is grown, but also in several other i3rovinces of the centre 
of France, and particularly in Touraine. The process of retting in run» 
ning water is almost abandoned for retting on the spot. Inventors con- 
tinue to occui)y themselves in discovering new processes of retting, and 
trials on a large scale have shown that the problem is, to say the least, 
about to be solved. Attempts ha^ e also been made to cultivate cotton. 
Yarious interesting experiments have given rather remarkable results. 

"Wool, in spite of foreign competition, which, during the last 10 years, 
has lowered the average prices, continues to be one of the great i^roducts 
of agriculture. Strenuous endeavors have been made to increase the 
weight of the fleeces ; and to accomplish this object without deteriorating 
the quality of the meat, or the abundance of the wool, and at the same 
time to maintain an average strength and length of the staple. The 
improved merino race is in the highest repute in France. Chatillonais, 
Brie, Beauce, and Soissonais have even supplied breeders for all parts of 
the world. The Eambouillet type is in demand everywhere. The wools 
of ISTaz and Mauchamp, also, stiU occupy the attention of the breeders. 
The exhibition of French wool deserves the notice of visitors, by reason 
of the numberless efforts which have been made to imj)rove this branch 
of industry. 
Hue 



162 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

"The silk producers liave suffered terribly in France during the last 12 
years. In the principal departments, where the culture of the mulberry 
was a source of considerable wealth, general desolation reigns ; however, 
many efforts, some of which have been successful, have been made to 
produce eggs which mil yield worms capable of resisting the disease. 
The small establishments, and particularly those situated in districts 
where the cidture of the midberry tree is not very extensive, have for- 
tunately not suffered from the ravages of the epidemic. Lastly, efforts 
to secure the acclimation of other silk- worms than those indigenous to the 
ordinary mulberry districts have been, in most cases, successful.'' 

TOBACCO AND HOPS. 

'' The cultivation and manufacture of tobacco has followed, step by step, 
the constantly increasing consumption in France. The cultivation is now 
pui'sued in 18 departments, as well as in Algeria. The directors of the 
state manufactories exhibit specimens of the material grown in these 
localities j and they show also many varieties of tobacco in the vari- 
ous stages of vegetation. Out of 36,000 tons used in the state manu- 
factories, 23,000 to 24,000 tons are of indigenous growth, and the rest is 
imported from abroad. The 17 tobacco manufactories actually in work 
employ about 17,000 work-people, of whomfrom 11,000 to 15,000 are women. 
Few manufacturing industries supijly women relatively with so much 
work. There are, besides, upwards of 2,000 persons, of whom more than 
half are women, employed in the tobacco-gro^^ang estabUshments. There 
are also manufactured in France snuffs of every description; tobacco for 
che^\ing; smoking tobacco, called tiscaferlate ; tobacco in roUs-; cigars 
made of Havana tobacco; cigars sold at 10 centimes and called 
etrangers; five-centime cigars, called ordinaires; and cigarettes of aU 
kinds. These establishments also sell cigars imported from Havana, 
Manilla cigars, cigarettes, and other articles in great demand by the 
trade. The refuse tobacco, which is apphcable to agriculture, consists of 
the waste and ashes. The directors of the state manufactories also 
exhibit all the various products which can be extracted from tobacco. 

"The cultivation of hops increases in France, particularly in the north 
and in Alsace ; it had successively spread into several other regions, and 
has ac(piired a certain importance in Burgundy. The qualities of the 
French hop begin to be api)reciated in the most important centres of 
consumption. 

" Tlie evident necessity for a continual increase in the supply of animal 
food has led to a large extension in the cultivation of plants for fodder. 
Several attempts have been made to introduce new plants, or at any 
rate better varieties of plants under cidtivation. Instead of leaving the 
meadows to themselves, they are now cultivated, dressed with manure, 
and soAvn with selected seeds. Important improvements have also been 
introduced in the gathering and in the mode of preserving fodder. 

" The cultivation of oleaginous plants has also considerably increased 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 163 

during tlie last 12 years, tlie farmers appreciating more and more the 
imi^ortance of cultivating some industrial crops side by side with cereal 
and garden crops. The progress of industry, as well as the general 
advance of ci\ilization, tends moreover to augment the demand for oils 
of various qualities. A special exhibition of oils offers a particular 
interest; analogous therewith will be found colza oils, linseed oils, red 
poppy oils, nut oils, &c., from the superfine oils used in horology to the 
coarsest oils employed for the lubrication of machines and the manufacture 
of common soap." 

AGRICULTURE IN FRANCE. 

''The taste for agriculture is gradually diffusing itself throughout the 
country. Great care is bestoAved on beehives, so as to multiply the 
swarms, and insure a much larger quantity and better quality of wax than 
formerly. France produces plants of the most various x>erfumes, and 
otliers which give most briQiant and durable colors. Besides the aro- 
matic and dyeing plants, are to be found those used for pharmaceutical 
and tanning purposes. The researches for i^lants capable of yielding 
fibres suitable for paper-making occupy the attention of scientific men; 
and from this point of view these various agricultural products deserve 
attention. Eural cultivation produces almost every description of crop, 
so that it is impossible to properly ap]3reciate a system of cultivation by 
a single product ; the whole must be examined. For this reason many 
eminent agricultiuists have exhibited collections of the i^lants which their 
lands yield, as well as some products of their cattle-sheds and poidtry- 
yards. Moreover, in many cases, riu'al trades are so essentially and 
peculiarly associated with the culture of the land, that it is absolutely 
necessary to impart a knowledge of the special method of cultivation in 
its various phases ; and it is only in collecting all the products of a district 
that its riches, its fertility, and the results arising from the labor expended, 
can be fully appreciated. With this object several agricidtural societies, 
committees, and other associations, were desirous of sending collective 
exhibitions. In studying these exhibitions it will be seen what differences 
are presented by the various localities of the three great agricultural 
circles. Dimng the last 12 years evident progress has been made in 
every district of France. The agricidtiu^al produce of France has cer- 
tainly increased, on an average, fidly one-tenth, in spite of the difficulties 
which have residted from the advance in wages, and from capitalists quit- 
ting rui'al enterprises and devoting themselves to industrial and commer- 
cial speculations. Agriculture demands, moreover, a sui)ply of manure 
equivalent to the amount of its cidtivated produce; in proportion as its 
products increase it needs larger quantities of fertilizing materials. The 
multiplication of rapid and cheap means of transport has at last favored 
these objects, and gives more activity to rural occupations.'' 



164. PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

CLASS 44.— CHEMICAL AND PHARMACEUTICAL PEODUCTS. 

^'Under the general appellation of chemical products, class 44 comprises 
almost every mineral and vegetable matter which chemistry has been 
instrumental in transforming and adapting to the use of the various 
branches of industry. Generally these products are manufactured entirely 
in the laboratory ; but sometimes they are simply extracted from natural 
substances, in which they exist ready formed. Chemical products fur- 
nish to a great number of other industries the material necessary for their 
existence and working; consequently a new discovery or a remarkable 
imi^rovement is a fact of importance of which the tributary trades should 
take special note. 

''Chemical works are distributed in various departments of France, 
according to the convenience or locality of the j)roximity of the mate- 
rials for manufactiuT.. They form an imi)ortant branch of commerce in 
Paris, Lille, Marseilles, Lyons, and Eouen ; but St. Gobain, BouxviUier, 
Dieuze, Thann, the island of Carmargue, and the coast of Brittany, pos- 
sess establishments which are not surpassed in importance by those of 
any of the great towns. The aggregate trade in these productions rep- 
resents an annual value of 1,200,000,000 francs, (£48,000,000.) The man- 
ufacturers of sulphmic acid, soda, soap, and stearine candles alone give 
circulation to 600,000,000 francs,- and if to these be added dyestuffs, 
products applied to the bleaching of tissues, paper-making, painting, 
glass manufactiire, calico and other printing, to manuring purx)oses, 
electro-metallurgy, photography, the gilding and silvering of metals, &c., 
the estimate of 1,200,000,000 francs will be a moderate one. The exx)orts 
amoimted, in the year 1863, to 53,000,000 francs. 

''The workmen employed in these manufactm^es work under the direc- 
tion of foremen or superintendents. In order to carry on such opera- 
tions with economy, large premises are required, as well as special build- 
ings and costly apparatus, and conseqnently an exj)enditure of capital 
which excludes small undertakings. Nevertheless, some workmen, hav- 
ing special manipidative powers, have succeeded in manufactiuing certain 
products more advantageously than the large factories ; this, however, 
is the exception to the rule. The improvements which have taken place 
in chemical manufactures since 1862 are : The invention of new coloring 
matters, obtained from toluidine and methylic aniline, and, consequently, 
an improvement in the quahty and the reduction in the price of colors then 
exhibited in London ; the conversion of naphthaline into benzoic acid, a 
substance derived from the vegetable kingdom: and the commercial pro- 
duction of magnesium, now so usefuUy employed as a means of illumina- 
tion in photography. But the fact which merits the greatest attention 
is the large increase in the production of chemical matters — a certain 
sign of progression in all other branches of industry. If we take into 
consideration the extent and value of the service of chemical science, it 
would appear advisable, in order to maintain France in the industrial 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 165 

rank which she occupies, to give greater development to practical instruc- 
tion in this science, either by increasing the resources of the laboratory 
established by the initiative of his excellency Mr. Duruy, and conducted 
at the Museum of l^atural Sciences (^ Jardin des Plantes') by Mr. Fremy, 
member of the Institute of France, or by the creation of similar establish- 
ments in all the great industrial centres of France. In Prussia the fact 
that theoretical teaching is insufficient to make good chemists has been 
so thoroughly recognized that immense laboratories have been estab- 
lished at Bonn. and Berlin, Avhere pui)ils are instructed in those practical 
exiDeriments without which theory remains fruitless. The interest which 
attaches to pharmaceutical products is somewhat dwarfed by that which 
is created by commercial chemical i^roducts. It is true that in i^harmacy 
progTess is slow, especially under a system of excessive restrictions, 
which i^ractically sets aside individual action. When the apothecary 
has once given a guarantee of his practical knowledge by submitting to 
the examinations for his diploma, he has a full claim to liberty of action 
in the commercial exercise of his profession. Such a new state of things 
would certainly give a great impulse to the importation of French medi- 
cal preparations, which are highly esteemed in the commercial world.'' 
[Signed by Menier and Forbade, members of the admission committee.] 

CLASS 45.— SPECIMENS OF THE CHEMICAL PEOCESSES FOR 
BLEACHING, DYEINC, PBINTINC, AND DRESSING. 

I. The products exhibited in this class and in the five classes belong- 
ing to Group ly — class 27, cottons 5 28, flax and hemp -, 29, wooUens ; 
30, cloths ; and 31, silks — are : 1. Wool in the fleece, washed and dyed, 
for the manufacture of cloths 5 2. Combed and carded woollen yarn, 
bleached and dyed, for the manufacture of shawls and garments, and 
fiu^niture stuffs -, 3. Cotton, linen, hempen, and other yarns, bleached, 
dyed, and dressed -, 4. Silk yarn, bleached and dyed 5 5. Cotton, linen, 
and hempen tissues, plain and figured, bleached for printing, or bleached 
and dressed ; 6. The same tissues, dyed and dressed -, 7. Mixed and un- 
mixed woollen tissues, dyed and dressed 5 8. Clothes dyed in the piece ; 
9. Cotton, hnen, woollen, and silk tissues, plain and figured, mixed and 
unmixed, printed and dressed, dresses for the general trade, superior 
fancy tissues, fui'niture stuffs, printed shawls and carpets, and tissues 
printed on the weft; 10. Cotton, hempen, and linen furniture stuffs, 
glazed, gummed, and waxed, plain and printed j 11. Cotton cloths, waxed 
and grained, in imitation of Morocco leather 5 12. Textile fibres of various 
kinds, reduced to pulp, bleached and dyed, of all colors, for the manu- 
facture of paper-hangings. 

II. The principal centres of production are Paris, Lyons, Eheims, 
Rouen, Mulhouse, Amiens, St. Quentin, Roubaix, Cambray, Elbceuf, St. 
Etienne, Sedan^ Lisieux, Mazamet, Lodeve, Laval, BischwiUer, Ste. Marie- 
aux-Mines, &c. 

III. The raw materials the most in use are the following : Chemical 



166 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

products, starchy materials, neutral animal matters, essences, oils, gieases, 
insoluble mineral colors, dyeing stuffs, (indigo, cochineal, madder, orchilla^ 
dye woods, extracts, lakes, &c.,) and artificial colors produced from coal 
tar, (red, violet, blue, green, yellow, brown, black.) 

Among tlie improvements introduced since 1855 may be mentioned : 

1. Imi^roved methods of engraving the designs. 

2. The application on an extensive scale of the pantograph and electric 
pile to the engraving of the rollers. 

3. The considerable economy resulting from the application of the 
galvano-plastic process, or the covering with copper of cast iron, steel and 
bronze rollers, which now replace the solid copper rollers previously 
employed. 

4. The restoration of old engraved rollers. 

5. The improved method of, and economy in bleaching 5 the improve- 
ments of the dressing and washing machines, (economy of power and of 
water 5) the more advantageous use of the power emiDloyed in working 
the printing machines. 

6. The improvements made in the manufacture of Turkey red ; the 
application of pyrogallic acid in the production of black for grounds 5 
the discovery of new colors, principally those derived from coal tar, and 
their application on a vast scale to dyeing and printing i)rocesses ; the 
great extension given by these discoveries to the manufacture of chem- 
ical products; the novel process, by means of animalizing vegetable 
fibres, to render them more susceptible of taking colored matter ; the 
use of zinc in dyeing with aniline colors. The most important fact is 
the decrease of the net cost, coincident with the improvement of the 
products and the increase of the wages of the operatives. 

CLASS 46.— LEATHER AND SKINS. 

"The products exhibited in this class comprise eight divisions: 
'' 1. Tanned leathers, including strong sole leather and leather intended 
to be curried. 2. Curried leathers for boots, shoes, saddlery, and 
machinery. 3. Black and colored varnished leathers, for boots, shoes, 
and saddlery. 4. Goatskin and imitation morocco, for boots, shoes, 
bookbinding, furniture, and small articles. 5. Tawed leatliers for boots, 
shoes, and gloves. 6. Chamois leather. 7. Tanned Hungary leather. 
8. Parchment. 

"Paris is the most important centre of the trade for all kinds of 
leather. Givet, Cliateau-Eenault, and Strasburg especially manufacture 
strong leather; Nantes and Millhau, leather for vamps; Grenoble and 
Aunonay, tawed leather for glove-making; Niort, chamois leather. 
The principal seat of the morocco manufacture is in Paris, Avhicli also 
furnishes strong leathers. The leathers called 'a la Garouille^ are pro- 
duced by a special method of tanning, and come from the southeast of 
France. The leather manufactured in the French tanneries has two 
distinct sources of supply: the slaughtering of cattle at home, and the 



MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 167 

importation of raw liides from England, Ireland, Holland, Germany, La 
Plata, Peru, Brazil, Mexico, the West Indian islands, Madagascar, India, 
and Australia. The price varies with the locality from whence it is 
derived, the nature, the quality, and the state of the merchandise on its 
arrival. The leathers exported into France come in the salted, dry, and 
dry-salted forms. The imported hides, as well as those of home produce, 
include the skins of various kinds of animals. Each year the import of 
raw hides amounts to about 220,000,000 francs. The tanning materi- 
als are generally of French derivation. The export of tanning hark 
increases every year. Algeria supi)lies a great quantity of kermes oak- 
root bark, necessary for the tanning of leather ^a la Garouille.'^ 

''Mechanical aid is being introduced daily in the leather factories; still 
manual labor continues at the present moment the base of the indus- 
try. Machinery has been brought into use in a great many large tan- 
neries, but it is applied especially to the preliminary processes of 
tanning and currying. The greater i:>art of these operations have not 
been well performed by mechanical means, and recourse has, conse- 
quently, hitherto been had to manual labor in spite of the promise held 
out by some machines, and, among others, by those intended for the 
fleshing of hides, whether calf or morocco. As to the processes for 
rapid tanning they have not yet jdelded satisfactory results. The work- 
men are generally employed in the tanneries. There exist, however, a 
few small manufacturers, of limited means, who employ sometimes one 
or two workmen. They either undertake one special department of 
manufacture, such as curr;^ing or morocco work, or only certain opera- 
tions, such as flushing. There are, especially in Paris, many large estab- 
lishments which work for the retail skinners and curriers. 

"The leather trade has a central market, France in each, centre j still, 
Paris, where so many beasts of the first quality are slaughtered, is at 
once the greatest market both for fresh raw hides and for manufactured 
leathers. Havre, Marseilles, ]!:^antes, and Bordeaux are the great seats 
of the import trade in raw hides. The provincial manufacturers, who 
do not dispose of their products in the district, send them to Paris, 
either to the leather market or to the houses of commission merchants. 
A certain number of manufacturers have dei)ots at Paris, but sale by 
commission is the mode most generally adopted by second-rate manufac- 
turers. 

'' The consumption of meat in France is constantly on the increase, and 
the supply of the raw material of the leather trade augments in like 
manner. Between 1850 and 1863 the imi^orts have increased one-half. 
The total importation of raw hides salted, dry, or salted and dried, was, 
in 1865, 48,646 tons, and the total value nearly 100,000,000 francs. The 
exportation amounted, at the same time, to 6,685 tons in tanned, curried, 
morocco and varnished leather. To this must be added dressed skins, 
which figin-e on the returns of the Douane for 3,168 tons, of the total value 
of 81,223,902 francs, thus increasing the gross total to 147,198,106 francs. 



168 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

The committee regrets that it cannot point out any great improvements 
in the trade during the last 12 years ; the leather manufacturers of France 
generally being very chary of innovations. 

''As regards tanning, we have already said that several improvements 
have been introduced to accelerate the process, though the results have 
not been satisfactory. A new tanning substance has also been intro- 
duced in place of oak bark, namely, the wood of the chestnut tree 
reduced to shavings; and still further efforts have been made to do away 
mth the use of tannin entirely, and prepare hides by means of turpen- 
tine alone, but subsequently a certain portion of tannin extract has been 
used with the turpentine in order to produce a better result. In the 
curr;ST^ng trade there is scarcely any actually new invention to be found, 
unless we consider as such a system of working which the Societe 
d-Incouragement judged worthy of reward. This method has for its 
object the rendering the leather more supple by the imi^rovements in the 
details of the manufacture, and to render it imperineable by means of 
a thick coating of gutta-percha. The true progress made in the trade is 
the increased skill brought to bear on the various operations. As 
regards the morocco trade, we must not omit to mention the attempts 
made, with the view to a more general and ordinary application of the 
magniiicent colors produced from aniline and its derivatives, now so 
numerous. These are new resources for the morocco worker, who is 
thus enabled to assimilate more nearly the color of the skin and that of 
the stuff intended to be incori^orated. In all the different branches of 
the leather trade the committee has pointed out the necessity for accel- 
erating and improving the manufacture by the constant introduction of 
improved plans and utensils and improvements in the workshops in 
which the various operations are iDcrformed.-' 



GEOUP Yl. 

APPARATUS AND PROCESSES USED IN THE COM- 
MON ARTS. 

Class 47. Apparatus and Processes of Mining and Metallurgy.— Class 
48. Implements and Processes used in the Cultivation of Fields and 
Forests.— Class 49. Implements used in the Chase, Fisheries, and Gathering 
Wild Products.— Class 50. Apparatus and Processes used in Agricultural 
Works and for the Preparation of Food. — Class 5!. Apparatus used in 
Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Tanning.— Class .52. Prime-movers, Boilers, and 
Engines specially adapted to the requirements of the Exhibition.— Class 
53. Machines and Apparatus in general. — Class 54. Machines, Tools.— Class 
55. Apparatus and Processes used in 8pinning and Rope making.— Class .56. 
Apparatus and Processes used in Weaving.— Class 57. Apparatus and Pro- 
cesses FOR Sewing and for Making-up Clothing. — Class .58. Apparatus and 
Processes used in the Manufacture of Furniture and other objects of 
Dwellings. — Class 59. Apparatus and Processes used in Paper-making, Dye- 
ing, AND Printing. — Class 60. Machines, Instruments, and Processes used in 
various works.— Class 61. Carriages and Wheelwrights' Works.— Class 62. 
Harness and Saddlery. — Class 63. Railway Apparatus. — Class 64. Tele- 
grapihc Apparatus and Processes.— Class 65. Civil Engineering, Public 
Works and Architecture.- Class 66. Navigation and Life-boats, Yachts 
and Pleasure-boats. 

The twenty classes of tliis group embraced nearly 100 sections, any one 
of which, was sufficient to furnish a report of the length of the present. 
Indeed, on some subjects the best informed talent of the world has 
employed itself for many years. The result in literature is a library ; in 
practice, a million new processes whereby the increasing wants of the 
age are supplied. The intent of this report being general and not siDCcial, 
a few i)oints of pubhc interest only will be dwelt upon. Following the 
remarks thus offered will be. found the usual extracts from the French 
official catalogue, containing the latest local data on the special sections. 

CLASS 47.— APPARATUS AND PROCESS OF MIOTNG AND 

METALLURGY. 

COAL-MININa IN FRANCE. 

Among the plans and models exhibited in class 47 was one of great 
interest to the French people. It represented, in a map, the newly discov- 
ered coal mines of Pas-de-Calais. Fuel of aU kinds is expensive in France. 
The country has been denuded of its trees, and coal, until recently, had 
to be imported from neighboring countries, and was, in consequence, a 
luxiuy which the poor could not command. It maj' safely be said that 
the scarcity of fuel has in a great measure affected the domestic habits of 



170 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

ordinary life. It has compelled tlie masses to seek warmth and life in the 
various cafes^ >Yhere these cheering influences are always conspicuously 
displayed. Any prospective cheapening of the article of fuel is therefore 
an object of particular concern to the French^ and has occupied the best 
attention of the government. 

Another map of the Pas-de-Calais, by Mr. Ooince, was on the scale of 
1 to 10,000, and gave a fair idea of the prodigious perseverance and 
energy which have been bestowed on the opening of pits Avhich were at 
one time supposed to be chimerical. It was only in 1846 that a boring for 
water at Oignies, not far from Douay, gave rise to the theory that there 
was a deflection of coal in that direction. Between 1850 and 1864 conces- 
sions of land were made to various companies, mostly in the Pas-de-Calais, 
and extending in that department over a length of 35 miles. Some 40 
pits have already been sunk, averaging in depth from 100 to 350 yards. 
The amount of coal produced from this hidden and accidentally-discov- 
ered source — for it had no geographical indication — ^has risen from 5,000 
tons in 1851 to upwards of 1,600,000 tons in 1866. 

There were maps of other coal mines in France, exhibited by the French 
ministry of public works. The best were those of the Loire. These pits, less 
than 20 years ago, were on the point of being abandoned, the obstacles 
in the way of their being worked seeming to be almost insurniountablCe 
The government instituted an inquiry into the subject, and detailed its 
best engineers to examine thoroughly the nature of the ground. Their 
reports presented in a clear and practical light the difficulties that had to 
be encountered. These were in due time conquered. At the present time 
over 3,000,000 of tons of coal are obtained from the basin of the Loire. 

A large model of the ravine of the Grande Combe, whence the south 
of France begins to obtain its supplies, was also exhibited, and demon- 
strated the great amount of exploration done during the past few years, 
and the very minute and acciu^ate record which is kept of all the phe- 
nomena of mining. The Grande Combe is the third district, in point of 
productiveness, in France. It now averages 1,200,000 tons. 

These maps and models, and others exhibited in the same department, 
demonstrate the fact that coal beds in France diverge from the pit with 
singular sinuosity — the Avorkings in several places being far beneath the 
overlying strata of the Trias. Such mines in wealthy coal districts 
would be almost disregarded, but skill, even more than necessity, has 
rendered them valuable and remunerative. Wlien this is not the case 
the very wealth of the seams presents unusual difficulties. The coal-fields 
of central and southern France, although individually of small extent 
as compared with those of England and Belgium, are remarkable in this 
respect. The tolerably regular beds of coal at Blanzy and Montceau run 
to 50 feet, and even to 60 feet, in thickness ; at Creusot, where the bed 
stands in a vertical position, it varies from a few feet to 50 feet, 80 feet, 
and ascends to as much as 130 feet; and the great seam of Decazeville 
(Aveyron) often extends to 100 feet in thickness. Tlie vast vacuities 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS 171 

which must necessarily be produced in working these mines lead neces- 
sarily to very serious engineering obstacles, which have only been sur- 
mounted by an extraordinary display of skill, and by the adoption of a 
plan which, while it involves labor, almost amounting to a double opera- 
tion of mining, seems at all events to insure safety. This consists of 
packing all excavated places, except the passage ways, mth rubbish car- 
ried down from the surface. A change of hands is required for this pur- 
pose, the colliers being absent from the mine. In some districts a par- 
ticular shaft and line of roads and special wagons or tubs are set apart 
for the work, and in certain mines fully one-third of the hands emi)loyed 
are engaged in the business of filling up. 

The maps and models from Belgium were also singularly exact and 
instructive. France imports, mainly from Belgium, 7,100,000 tons of coal. 
Her own production had reached 12,000,000 tons in 1865, and is undoubt- 
edly greater. 

PRESSED COAL. 

The progress of manufactures requires a constantly increasing sup- 
ply, and the scarcity of wood, as before remarked, renders fuel in any 
shai)e a luxury. The navy, too, recj[uires inexorably its rations. To 
provide these economically has been the study of many i)ractical men, 
and a result has been obtained which is worthy of record. The dust of 
coal is used. It is pressed into cakes by a variety of processes, nearly 
all of which seem to be in favor. For naval use this kind of fuel possesses 
advantages. It is asserted that in the carriage of the little bricks there is 
a loss of only one per cent., instead of six to ten per cent., as in lump coal; 
and when stored abroad they are found after two years' exposure to be 
scarcely at all injured, while ordinary coal would have suffered to the 
extent of 50 per cent. It is claimed for them also that they are free, or 
comi)aratively free, from ash, and can be made from the refuse of almost 
every kind of coal, and in such a ratio as to produce the best effect in 
gettiQg up steam, and maintaining it. The bricks are exceedingly com- 
l)act. They are produced by hydraulic pressure and require but a small 
percentage of extraneous, gummy, or resinous matter to make them 
stone-like and thoroughly durable. The best approved process, or rather 
the one which seems to give the best results, is that adopted by the 
comi:>any of La Chazotte. The machine used has 16 cylinders disposed 
as the radii of a circle, in which the coal slack, after being heated by a 
current of steam and mingled, by the means of very ingenious appa- 
ratus, with pitch, is pressed by i)istons, and formed either into cylindri- 
cal or hexagonal blocks of convenient length. The prices of compressed 
fuel are as follows: 

First quality, containing only 2.10 per cent, of ash, 28 francs per ton; 
second, containing 5 per cent., 26 francs; the other sorts range from 23 J 
to 9J francs. A single manufacturer produces no fewer than 175,000 
tons of this agglomerated coal per year. There are several others of 



172 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

almost equal extent. The slack or waste of the coal mines is tlms econ- 
omized, and an article produced which, apart from the question of cheap- 
ness, i30ssesses special considerations which seem to adapt it for general 
use in stoves and furnaces of every kind. 

BORma SHAFTS AND DRlLLm^ ROCKS. 

An interesting display of maps and models illustrating the process of 
boring was made in the French department. Two important i)ul)lic 
works are now in progress in the city of Paris, and the contractors were 
the principal exhibitors. The French capital obtains its best and pui-est 
water from artificial sources, namely, the artesian wells of Grenelle and 
Passy. Two additional wells are now in x^rocess of being sunk ; one in 
the suburb of the Chapelle in the extreme north of Paris, by Messrs. 
Degousee and Laurent, and the other at the Butte aux Cailles in the 
extreme south of the city, by Messrs. Dru. These celebrated firms 
exhibited the apparatus by which they make all kinds of borings, ranging 
from four inches to five feet. 

Pure water being an object of great concern to every community, it 
may be well here to give a few particulars of the two artesian wells now 
in successful operation. At Grenelle the surface is 121 .3 feet above the 
level of the sea 5 at Passy 305.2 feet 5 the depth of bore-hole at Grenelle is 
1,800.7 feet,- at Passy 1,923.7 feet j internal diameter of tube or lining of hole 
at GreneUe approximately 9 inches to 6 inches at bottom ; at Passy 2.4 
feet. The full diameter of the Passy bore-hole was 1 metre, or 3.28 feet. 
The new ones are to be in one case above five feet, and in the other about 
four feetj Avhilst it is proposed to sink much deeper than heretofore, in 
order to open new sources of supply and avoid drawing too extensively 
on the old ones. 

Exami)les were shown of the application of boring to the ordinary ]}to- 
cess of mining, such as the excavation of shafts. It is often difficult and 
sometimes impossible, owing to the watery character of the soil, for work- 
men in the usual way to penetrate to the requisite depth and perfect the 
casing of the pit. When this is done it is at a great cost of labor and money. 
By the machinery used for ordinary boring it is done with comi)arative 
ease, and the casing is always perfect, because it is a tubing which, if 
necessary, can be filled in against the side of the pit with concrete and 
other i)reparations more or less impermeable. The expense by this pro- 
cess is not more than one-quarter of what it Avould be under the usual 
way. Sections of two pits at St. Avoid, France, were exhibited. The 
first of these was sunk through 426 feet of permeable red sandstone, and 
coal was found at a depth of 1,036 feet on the 4th of April, 1867. The 
second liad progressed to the deptli of 521 feet on February 3d. The 
diameter of the cutters used in boring these pits was 13 feet. 

Several macliines for Avorking under ground and supersedhig liand 
labor in diilling rocks were displayed, many of them of ascertained A^alue. 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 173 

One of these, by General Haux^t, was from the United States, and was cliar- 
acterized by simi>licity and directness of action. 

The diamond-pointed drill of Mr. Leschot, exhibited in the French 
section, whatever may be the original cost, is claimed to be the best 
and cheapest in the end. It works with great rapidity and is ntterly 
indifferent to the stnbbornness of the material against which it is placed. 
A drawing showed the way in AYhich it is proposed to arrange several of 
these imi)lements moved by steam power for boring tunnels. The boring- 
tool is tubular and acbnits a jet of water through the middle into the 
hole; its face of soft iron is studded with eight pieces of black diamond 
carefully set in the iron, and the incomparable hardness of the adamant 
is so little affected by contact with the hardest granite, that the engineer 
stated the cost of the abrasion of diamond for a hole of half a yard deep 
to be less than four cents. 

A machine for channelling and quarrying marble and other stone for 
building or ornamental purposes was exhibited by the Steam Stone Cutter 
Company of New York, and is in use at the marble quarries of Rutland, 
Yermont, and is the invention of Mr. Wardwell. It is asserted that this 
machine reduces the labor cost of the production of marble, and cuts it 
from the quarry with much greater cleanness. 

The safety lamp for working in coal mines was exhibited in many 
forms, but the principle was always that of Davy. Intended for the 
I)reservation of the workmen's lives by the prevention of explosions, it 
seems curious that the only imx)ediments in the way of its fulfilLing this 
duty are the workmen themselves, i^early aU explosions of fire-damp 
are caused by incautiously opening the Davy lamp. There seems to be 
a fascination about doing so, for locks are in vain, and are picked or 
broken when the workman wishes to get at the flame. An ingenious 
invention i^ossessing strength as well as other merits was exhibited by 
Mr. Arnould of Mons, who so inserts an iron pin that the lamp can only 
be unlocked by placing it in a i)roper position over the poles of a pow- 
erful magnet. 

The objects exhibited in this class form five i)rincipal sections: 1. 
Plans in reUef and dramngs of mineral deposits ; 2. Boring tools and 
machines ; 3. Mechanical api)aratus employed in mines for extraction, 
ventilation, &c.; 4. Apparatus serving for the after treatment of the 
materials extracted, such as apparatus for the mechanical preparation 
of ores and the agglomeration of combustibles, machines for foundries 
and forges, &c. Lastly, numerous drawings of metallurgical establish- 
ments and special apparatus. 

FRANCE. 

''It is principally in the departments of the I^ord, Saone, Loire, Seine, 
and Seine Inferieure that the objects contained in this class are produced. 
The supply has generally sufficed for all the wants of home consumption; 
we may even say that small exports are made to England, Italy, Spain, 



174 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Africa, and the two Americas. The French coal mines recently opened, 
especially those of Pas-de-Calais, can be compared, as regards their 
method of Avorking, exhanstion, and ventilation, to the great establish- 
ments of l^ewcastle, Belgium, and the basin of the Euhr, and can vie 
advantageously with all foreign countries. 

^'As regards the elaborations of mineral combustibles, no country is so 
advanced as France, and there exist none where such a large propor- 
tion of small coal extracted is submitted to i3uiification by washing, by 
means most varied, and by more improved apparatus ; none where the 
processes of agglomeration — a branch of industry which is, moreover, of 
French origin — have been more studied; none, lastly, where the making 
of coke is accomplished with less loss of combustible materials. The 
progress which the committee of admission of class 47 can point out, 
since 1855, is: 1. For the working of mines, the improvements in the 
processes of sinking shafts in loose and aqueous soil; the general imi3rove- 
ment of apparatus, with a Yie^v to increase the i)roductive power of the 
mmes. 2. For the mechanical preparation of ores and combustibles, the 
employment of a great number of new ai^paratus, with a view to render 
work still more mechanical, and thereby economize hand labor ; the appli- 
cation of improved methods of construction to those apx)aratus which 
have hitherto been executed in a rough manner. 3. In the development 
of metallurgy generally, the increase of the individual production of the 
blast furnaces ; the more general and judicious use of selected fuels and 
ores, a use which is facilitated by the increased means of transport 5 the 
substitution — each day more marked — of the coal iron for the charcoal 
iron, in consequence of the new applications that coal iron has found in 
the production of improved pig iron, and in the invention of improved 
or entirely new methods of refining, (Bessemer process;) and, finally, 
the increased power of the machinery and tools used for hammering and 
rolling, augmenting every day in dimensions, such as armor plates, large 
iron for buildings, iron plate, &c.'' 

CLASS 48.— IMPLEMENTS AND PEOCESSES USED IN THE 
CULTIVATION OF FIELDS AND FOEESTS. 

The objects included in class 48 were exceedingly important, compris- 
ing: 1. Imi)lements and machines for forest cultivation; 2. Agricul- 
tural machines and implements; 3. Plans of agricultiu^al works, and 
reports relating to farms which have obtained the prize of honor or other 
X^rizes, and Avhich ofter incidents worth studying and good examples for 
imitation, either as regards riu\al construction or other matters, such as 
irrigation, drainage, plantation, &c. ; 4. Commercial maniu^es, which sup- 
ply agriculture with matters of great utility in i^reser^ing or increasing 
the fertility of tlie soil. 

There Avere exhibitors in one or all of these sections from almost every 
country on the face of the earth. It was curious to observe in the glit- 
tering courts of eastern nations the rude appliances for tilling the soil, 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 175 

appliances wliicli liave barely changed their form since tlie commence- 
ment of tlie Christian era; and tlience to go to the annexe, or better still 
to the island of Billancoiu^t, and see the linge progress that has been 
made since the application of steam, and the general knowledge of 
mechanics which was its natnral result. 

Traction engines were conspicuous in the English department. They 
are intended mainly for drawing hay or wood over the ordinary surface 
of the country, but by the application of belting they can be used for 
any other purpose connected with agriculture. A good traction engine 
can draw 30 tons at a mere trifling cost per mile. 

Reapers and mowers were the specialties of America. They came out 
triumphant at the two trials which were made at the Emperor's farms at 
Yincennes and Fouilleuse. Several of these admirable machines jvere 
ordered by the Emperor. 

The inventions and contrivances in other branches of agriculture were 
innumerable. They indicate clearly that the day is not far distant when 
the historical plough-boy will disappear from the field — whistle and all — 
and be replaced by an intelligent engineer. 

FRANCE. 

'^ Among the practical improvements which have been made in the 
articles included in this class, during the last 12 years, may be cited : First. 
The more general emploj^ment of machines and implements for turning 
over the soil, and especially the invention of the YaUeraud plough, which 
serves to bring the sub-soil to the surface; the increased use of the 
threshing machine; the employment of steam i)ower as a motor in the 
more advanced agricultural undertakings; the application of the drills 
to the sowing of cereals in line; and, finally, some attemx)ts at steam 
cultivation, and the introduction of a multitude of reaping machines, 
which have but rarely fulfilled the expectation of those using them. 
Secondly. As regards the several methods of cultivation, and the progress 
made of late years in rural architecture, there exist a large number of 
farms which, by the general arrangement and details of their buildings, 
possess commodious and ingenious arrangements, having the effect of 
economizing hand labor and facilitating the connection of various opera- 
tions. In reference to commercial manures, we may mention principally 
the fossil sulphates, which, bemg extracted from French soil and sub- 
mitted to simi^le and inexpensive processes, supply the agricultural com- 
munity, at a loAV cost, with valuable means of increasing their crops. 
Thirdly. Like other industries, those connected with the forest obey the 
law of progress. Instruments for cutting wood, such as axes, billhooks, 
saws, &c., have latterly shown considerable improvements. The use of 
the plough, in aiding natural reproduction in coppices, produces marvel- 
lous results, and its employment cannot be too much recommended. 
The pruning of the trees, practiced for a long time by most faulty 
methods, is now carried on in a superior and efficacious manner, the 



176 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

value and importance of wMcli have been placed beyond all question by 
numerous and conclusive experiments. Interesting experiments are being- 
carried on relative to the barking of oak, a matter of the gTeatest interest 
to tlie tanning trade. Lastly, strenuous efforts have been made, during 
the last few years, principally by tlie forest administrations, to effect the 
entire rewooding of the denuded mountains of France." 

CLASS 49.— IMPLEMENTS USED m THE CHASE, FISHEEIES, 
AND GATHEEING WILD PEODUCTS. 

The objects exhibited in this class form five principal series : 

1. The implements and engines of the chase include, except fire-arms, 
all the other apparatus used for the cai)ture of game, such as nets, snares, 
decoys, &c., equipments for sportsmen, such as game-bags, powder-horns, 
shot-pouches, and cartouche-boxes. 2. Fishing implements and tackle, 
including lines, hooks, fishing-rods, harpoons, nets, bait, and the mate- 
rials used in the manufacture of these articles. 3. Implements used in 
collecting natural and uncultivated material. 4. Apparatus of piscicul- 
ture : arrangements for hatching spawn, for raising the fry, and trans- 
porting fish 5 aquariums, apparatus intended to stock rivers with fish, 
such as salmon ladders j lastly, plans of piscicvdtural establishments, and 
scientific works treating on such subjects. 5. Apparatus for diving or 
for submarine industry, such as the collection of sponges, coral, and 
pearls, for submarine construction, the closing of water sources, the rais- 
ing of sunken vessels, &c. 

The whole machinery of fishing was exhibited in class 49, even to 
human fishing in the shape of divers, and their complicated accoutre- 
ments. France possesses several establishments for the artificial cultiva- 
tion of fish, and the subject of i)isciculture has attracted the attention 
of the government. Large quantities of fish are now bred artificially, 
and with the best pecuniary result. Streams that have been emptied of 
salmon have been repopulated Avitli that delicacy, by means of the pisci- 
culturists, and oysters which were in a fair way of dying out on the coast 
are now submitting to the same quiet mode of increase. Experiments 
leave no doubt that fish can be cultivated as profitably as any other arti- 
cle of food. With the smallest amount of state protection, the salmon 
fisheries could again be established on the principal rivers of America. 

^'Sporting implements are mostly manufactured in Paris and exported 
to all the world. The leather of French origin is worked by mechanical 
I)rocesses. Stamping i)resses and sewing machines are used for making 
shot-bags, cartouche-boxes, game-bags, &c. The nets are made by hand. 
The trade in sporting necessaries in France is estimated at from 3,000,000 
to 4,000,000 francs. No very striking innovation has been noticed in 
this branch of industry since 1855 5 but the methods of manufacture have 
been so much improved that French productions ]iow leave nothing to 
be desired as regards tlie excellence and finish of the work. Fishing- 
tackle and implements are made in the immediate vicinity of the principal 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 177 

fisheries — Angers, Bordeaux, Boulogne, Dieppe, Dunkirk, and Nantes ; 
the hooks were formerly obtained entirely from abroad, but are now pro- 
duced i^artly in France, and iiarticularly in the departments of the Bouches 
du Ehone and the Cotes du Nord. Fresh water fishing-tackle is made 
in Paris and its en\arons. The raw materials employed in the trade are 
very various and are derived from almost all countries on the face of the 
globe. Hempen yarns are obtained from Angers, and those of flax from 
Lille. Bushes and reeds are obtained from Frejus. China, Japan, and 
India send us bamboos and silk. The so-called Florentine horse-hair 
comes fi'om Spain and Italy, and we borrow from innumerable birds the 
feathers with which to form artificial flies. All the delicate articles are 
made by hand ; nets alone are in part produced by looms. The products 
of this industry amount in number to about 1,000,000 a year, and are 
exi^orted to aU coimtries. The trade now obtains at home that supply 
which, before 1855, it used to obtain from foreign markets. The apparatus 
employed in gathering wild products has no special characteristic that 
demands notice. 

"The trade in i)iscicultural apparatus has extended, since 1855, in a 
very marked manner. From 500,000 to 600,000 francs' worth of such 
ai)paratus is annuaUy sold for home consumx3tion and export. The slate 
of Angers and the plate-glass of St. Gobain are laid imder contribution 
for the construction of aquariums. The a]3i)aratus for restocking rivers 
Avith fish, such as salmon ladders, constructed at the instance and under 
the superintendence of government, have produced great improvements 
in the productiveness of our streams. 

^ ' DiAdng axDparatus is also manufactiu^ed in Paris. Copper, lead, leather, 
India-rubber, with Laval thread and Bouen cottons, are the chief materials 
used in the manufacture. These apparatus, which are in increasing 
demand in every part of the civilized world for fisheries and hydi^aulic 
works, amount in value to about 400,000 francs or 500,000 francs per 
annum. Since the Exhibition of 1855 the apparatus have undergone 
great improvements which fit them for submarine exploration at great 
depths." 

CLASS 50 TO CLASS 54.— MACHINES AND APPABATUS IN 

GENEBAL. 

The classes 50 and 51 contained : 1. Apx^aratus and processes used in 
agricultural works, and for the prei3aration of food, such as ]naking pipes 
for drainage, making manure, making sugar, bre^^ing, &c. ; and 2. Appa- 
ratus used in (chemistry, farming, and tanning, such as apparatus and 
utensils for laboratories ; instruments for making tests, &c. Both classes 
were interesting to experts. 

Class 52 included the machinery, &c., used for the purxjoses of the 
Exhibition. It is fully described elsewhere in an extract from the French 
rex^ort. There were seven American exhibitors in this class. 

Class 53, machines and apparatus in general, contained detached pieces, 
12 UE 



178 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

of inacliinery, supports, rollers, slides, eccentrics, cog- wheels, &c. There 
were six American exhibitors. 

CLASS 54.— MACHINE TOOLS. 

Class 54 embraced all the articles comprised under the head of machine 
tools, such as lathes, planing machines, and other instruments used in 
the working of wood and metals. No more important class was to be 
found in the Exposition ; indeed mthout this, many other classes could 
not have existed. The principal nations exhibiting were Erance, Eng- 
land, Prussia, and America. At the former exliibitions of 1851, 1855, 
and 1862, the English were almost without rivals. On the present occa- 
sion they made but a small display, and were vastly outnumbered by 
France and Prussia, while in point of novelty of form and excellence of 
workmanship America was admitted to be on a par with any nation. 
In the French section were tools of every j)ossible description, many 
possessing a high degree of excellence, and some of extraordinary size. 
Prussia was represented in the fullest manner, and her iirogress in .this 
branch of manufacture excited general remark. 

In the American department the display made by Sellers, of Philadel- 
phia, was highly commended. Among other articles was a machine for 
cutting the teeth of wheels, which when once set in motion, is completelj^ 
automatic until it has gone comi^letely round, when it stops of itself and 
calls for tlie attendant. The Sellers planing machines were equal to the 
best in the Exposition, and were remarkable also for many novelties. 
So, also, the steam hammer with its new mode of manipulating the steam 
valve. The same firm, says Mr. J. Anderson, civil engineer, in his report 
to the board of council, has a fine display of screwing api)aratus entirely 
of a new character, and all constructed on a sound ininciple. By this 
system screws of all sizes are the same in the form of the thread, namely, 
an angle of 60 degrees ; six cutting tools for any size of screws, if i)laced 
together, will form a complete circle. The depth of the thread, the 
amount to be taken off the sharp point of the cutting-tool, are all derived 
from the diameter, or the pitch, or from each other, on a well defined 
principle. These screws, when complete, are what is technically termed 
''flat-top and bottom," and although this system may be objected to by 
those who are accustomed to and prefer ''the round-top and bottom," 
yet it is very evident the flat gives greater facility for measuring the 
diameter with extreme accuracy. Altogether, adds the same writer, the 
collection (of tools generally) exhibited by Sellers probably contained 
more originality than that of any other exhibitor in class 54. 

The lathes of Harris, and of the American Tool Company, possessed 
several novelties which were interesting to the experienced eye. Brown 
& Sharp exhibited a machine for making any description of screws out 
of the rough bar. When the screw to be made is once determined upon, 
every instrument necessary to its production is placed in suitable hold- 
ers therein provided : the wire or bar passes through the centre of the 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 179 

revolving spindle, when tool after tool is successively brouglit into opera- 
tion, and screws of perfect identity are tliereby produced with facility. 
Bement & Dougherty's machine tools displayed many points of excel- 
lence. The American exhibit in all respects, although not large, was 
extremely praiseworthy, and was a matter of surprise to many tool- 
makers who heretofore have had a sort of monopoly in this business. 

FRANCE. 

The machines exhibited in class 54 may be divided into four principal 
sections : 

"1. Machine tools for working metal, such as simple lathes, mechanical 
lathes, parallel lathes, sx)herical lathes, facing lathes, and lathes with 
four points, axle turning lathes, lathes of precision, counter-sinking lathes 
and rose engines, lathes for cutting screws and forming heads of bolts, 
&c., for turning the wheels of carriages and the driving-wheels of loco- 
motives, planing machines of all kinds, filing machines, mortising and 
drilling machines, whether horizontal or vertical, machines for shaping 
the heads of bolts and nuts for boring cylinders, forging, rivet making, 
punching, vShearing, chamfering, centering, riveting and pii)e-drawing, 
and lastly, machines for pounding and for polishing. 

" 2. The machine tools employed in Avorking wood, such as reciprocat- 
ing, continuous and circular sawing macliines, i^laning, moulding, turning, 
and mortising machines. 

"3. The various tools used in machine construction shops, such as rules, 
squares, trusses, bevels, chisels, glass and sand paper and cloths, &c. ; 
blocks and tackle, and other ai)paratus used in mounting machines. 

"4. Machines for i^ressing, crushing, mixing, sawing, and polishing, are 
comprised under the general denomination of machine tools, although 
they are, in fact, manufacturing machines. Such are also rolls for flat- 
tening the precious metals, cutting and stamj)ing presses, nailing machines, 
brick and tile making machines, stone-breaking machines, machines for 
grinding x^laster and colors, for bending and welding the tires of wheels, 
for cutting paper, for piercing hard and precious stones, and for diamond 
cutting. 

"Machine tools used for working iron and wood, and the greater jDart 
of the machines comi^rised in this class, are manufactured principally in 
the departments of the Seine, Seine Inferieure, I^^ord, HautEhin,Bas-Ehin, 
Bouches du Ehone, and Somme. Paris, Eouen, Mulhouse, Graffenstaden 
and Ha\T:e, are the chief places of loroduction of tools and machine tools. 
Fecamp manufactures wood-working machinery. The small machine 
tools used for metal- ware manufacture form the object of an important 
trade at Albert and Maubeuge. Machine tools, properly so-called, are 
constructed of metal ; cast-iron is generally emi)loyed for the purj^ose. 
The preference is given to Scotch iron, at the price of about 15 francs the 
100 kilograms, as presenting a uniform quality and not being too hard. 
Castings of moderate size cost about 35 francs, and large castings only 



180 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

about 25 francs. The other metals used are mostly of French origin. 
Eough iron costs 24 to 25 francs the 100 kilograms, and forgings from 
70 to 80 francs ; pieces of small dimensions submitted to great strain, 
and therefore requiring superior power of resistance, are made of special 
iron, costing from 50 to GO francs 5 but its production diminishes daily. 
The Bessemer steel does not yet offer sufficient guarantee to allow of its 
being used for these parts. Until this is the case, the manufacturers are 
compelled to employ steel which costs them from 90 to 150 francs the 100 
kilograms. Case-hardened iron is substituted for the former in the 
case of small pieces of machinery, and for very small pieces malleable 
cast-iron is preferred. The parts of machine tools are nearly all produced 
by machinery, in large workshops abundantly sux)plied with all the means 
of giving with rapidity the form required before the parts are put together, 
and with the view of increasing production without adding to the extent 
of their establishments. Many constructors now i^roduce the castings 
and large forged pieces on the very spot where the iron is produced. 
This principle of the division of labor and of the setting apart of certain 
workshops for special i^urposes is being adopted more and more every 
day in our large towns. 

^' The cost of hand work varies greatly according to the locality and the 
ability of the workmen. In Paris the average wages of the operatives 
who work by hand or direct machine tools is five francs a day. In other 
central towns more favorably situated, such as Mulhouse, for examj)le, the 
average is not more than three francs. First-class hands, however, earn 
much higher wages, sometimes as high as nine francs per day. The con- 
stant increase in the machinery of construction shops tends incessantly to 
improve the condition of the workman by diminishing his bodily labor 
and giving him time and opportunity for making numerous arrange- 
ments which have the effect of increasing his earnings, especially when 
he is engaged on piece-work. The machinists generally construct the 
machines which they produce after their own models, but they are often 
obhged to modify them according to the demands of the purchaser. 
For several years the great houses have established depots at Paris for 
the machines in most general use, such as lathes, drilling, planing, 
punching, and shearing machines. These depots render great services to 
the manufacturers, who are often obliged to increase their machinery at 
a moment's notice. Even i)ublic establishments ol^en take advantage of 
this arrangement. The greater part of the products of this trade are for 
home use, but of late important business has been done with Italy, 
Spain, South America, Eussia, Turkey, and even Japan. 

"The productions of France, Avhicli a fcAV years since were ver^^ limited 
in extent, may be valued at about 12,000,000 francs. Although the 
prices of the raw materials have submitted to considerable diminution 
since the treaty of commerce came into effect, the selling x)rice of the 
machinery has remained almost stationary, in consequence of the increas- 
ing dearness of labor and the constant augmentation of the weight of 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 181 

the macliines, in order to diminish vibration and to simplify the arrange- 
ment of the foundations." 

RECENT IMPROVEMENTS. 

''The committee deem it their dntj^to point out the following improve- 
ments as having taken place within the last 12 years: 

"1. More solidity of construction, simplicity and perfection, and more 
frequent adoption of automatic motions. 

"2. Forms better adapted to the materials employed. 

"3. Constantly increasing tendency towards mechanical production, 
and the completion of parts by the use of machinery alone. 

"4. As regards metal working machines, the introduction of machines 
which allow of several operations being performed on the same piece 
without dismounting it; as, for example, universal drilling and planing 
machines, working horizontally and vertically; lathes ui)on which parts 
haAilng a different axis to the principal piece are worked by means of 
cutters having a compound rotating and traversing movement; bolt cut- 
ting machines; mortising machines with revolving tools, and counter- 
sinking machines. 

"5. As regards wood- working machines, the construction of portable 
and locomotive machinery for sawing wood in the forest, the application 
of the endless handsaw to the cutting up of round timber; the employ- 
ment of helicoidal blades in planing; the modification of the tools used 
in boring and planing, and the increase in the rapidity of rotation given 
to these tools. 

" 6. As regards the tools themselves, a general improvement in the exe- 
cution of small tools used in connection with the machines, and the 
differential pully, which causes the load to remain in the same place 
when left to itself. 

" 7. Generally, as regards machines of all kinds, we may point to many 
simplifications in the means of transmitting motion, and specially the 
mechanical imitation of proceeding by hand; the employment of mechan- 
ical means in the working of fly-i)resses ; an increase in the production 
of brickmaking machines, and, lastly, a tendency towards the suppres- 
sion or diminution of previous working of the clay by the augmenta- 
tion of the pressure employed and by the greater dryness of the clay 
employed.'^ 

CLASS 55.— APPAEATUS AND PROCESSES USED m SPIN- 
m^G AND ROPE-MAKING. 

In class 55 were comprised all the machinery and apparatus used in the 
preparation and specimens of textile materials, of which cotton, wool, 
flax, hemp, and silk are the most important. The materials and machin- 
ery used for rope-makiug were also included in this class, together with 
ropes and cordages of all kinds. It may be here mentioned that some 
excellent specimens of cordage were exhibited, made from the fibre of 
the aloe. 



182 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

America hi^d four exliibitors of machinery for prei>aring cotton and 
wool. There was a considerable display from other countries, but with- 
out a complete knowledge of the technology of the trade it would be 
impossible to describe the peculiarities of the various machines. The 
subject belongs to the specialist. The following, from the introduction 
to this class in the official catalogue, will prove interesting: 

FRANCE. 

''This class includes the machines and api^aratus destined to manufac- 
ture textile fabrics, of which cotton, flax, hemp and silk are the most 
important. 

The machines for spinning, twisting, and weaving are constructed in 
different industrial centres of France. The machines employed in the 
silk trade are principally made at Lyons 5 Alsace manufactures for the 
cotton, woollen, worsted and spun silk trades j Lille is principally 
engaged with flax and hemi^ machinery 5 Eouen furnishes the cotton 
trade especially 5 Louviers, Elbeuf, and Sedan the machines used in the 
cloth trade 5 Troyes and its environs produce hosiery looms. Paris com- 
bines all these branches, but particularly those api^ertaining to the class 
noAV under notice. 

'' In consequence of the multiplicity of their forms and of their masses, 
textile materials require several series of spinning machinery or arrange- 
ments. Cotton is, at the present time, worked upon two systems very 
distinct from each other, and according to whether the yarns are to be 
carded or combed. For wool, four series of machines, corresponding 
with the denominations, carded yarns, combed merino yarns, long 
combed yarn, and mixed or combed carded yarns j lastly, a new appara- 
tus, recently introduced, gives woollen yarns by felting instead of spin- 
ning. Hemp, flax, and jute are prepared by two principal descriptions 
of machines — one for long fibres uj^on the combing i)rinciple, the other 
for short fibres or tow prepared by carding. Each of the two branches 
of the flax and hemp manufacture has other modifications in its 
machinery, according to the special character of the raw material 
emjAoyed and the strength of its fibres, ^or are the means the same 
for i^roducing fine and coarse yarns. The former requires not only a 
special machine, but the apiilication of water at various temi^eratures. 
Of all spinning machinery employed, that which is used for the most 
costly material is the most simifle in its construction; but the winding 
of silk from the cocoon, although ax)parently so extremely simple an 
operation, is in reality so delicate that with cocoons of the same qual- 
ity the value of the silk may be doubled by the ability of the -'durder'' 
or Avinder. The manufacture of sx)un silk, Avhicli increases daily with 
the cost of the raw matc^rial, also requires a variety of combs as well as 
cards. The spinning inac^hinery for cashmere, alpa(;a, and goat's hair 
is identical, with a trifling exception, with that emploj^ed for avooI. 

'' This class includes, also, the machinery and products of the rope and 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 183 

twine mamifactm^e. The machines of chiss 56 act ui^on yarns as upon a 
raw material of common origin to transform them into fabrics. The 
loom changes with the nature of the tissue to he produced. The same 
parts apply to the wearing of cotton, wool, flax, silk, &c., but are modified 
according as the tissue to be produced is plain or figured. Knitted 
articles, tulle, bobinet, net, and lace have each a machine specially con- 
structed for it, and which changes according to the form of the mesh. 
The looms of class oG are divided, then, into : 

'^1. Looms to make plain fabrics with close threads. 2. Looms to 
weave fancy stuffs, plain, napped, or with velvet pile. 3. Frames for 
knitting tulle, nets, lace, &c. 

'' The apparatus employed in the preparation of yarns for weaving, and 
also for the dressing of tissues, are included in this class. Some, such 
as calenders, presses, clipping machines, &c., indispensable in all textile 
manufactiu^es, are applied, with certain modifications, to each of the 
branches ; others, such as fulling mills, are used only in one branch of 
this vast group. The purification of wools has been greatly improved 
as regards not only the economy but the perfection of the process since 
the general adoption of machinery for washing, scraping, and other 
operations. 

'' Special modifications introduced in the apparatus for the preparation 
of cotton have produced unhoped-for results with the common produc- 
tions of India and China. The fine cottons of Georgia, Egypt, and 
Algeria are largely indebted for their present position in the market to 
the apphcation of combing machines. The same ininciple has produced, 
greater results still in the woollen manufacture. Spinning nmchinery, 
mill-jennies, and their contingents receive constant improvements, Avhich 
allow increased speed to be given to the spindles, and consequently an 
acceleration of their productive power. The spinning of silk itself, in 
spite of its simplicity, is the object of many experiments, with a view to 
the preservation and i^reparation of cocoons, as well as the im])rovements 
of the mills for twistmg and organzine. The machines for milling, dress- 
ing, and preparing the yarns for warps, and the wefting machines, have 
been modified with, great success, and have thus contributed to the 
extension of i^ower-loom weaving in those special articles where a sub- 
stitution for hand- weaving seemed very difficult. The several parts of 
power looms have been the object of careful study, which has brought 
about many improvements, such as governors, instantaneous stopping 
on the breaking of a thread, either warp or weft ; cages with a number 
of shuttles, &c. Licreased care in construction has produced improve- 
ments in the movements, and a proportional increase in the production. 
In the Aveaving of figured stuffs attem^its have been made to substitute 
paper for card in the Jacquard machine. This idea, which is far from 
new, has no chance of success until the various organs of this ingenious 
mechanism can be made to work with absolute precision. Another 
imx)ortant fact consists in the happy combination of a Jacquard loom in 



184 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

AYliieli tlie same part produces various effects in succession, so as to sim- 
plify the machine and produce an important economy in the results. 
Straight looms for hosiery which work by hand produce no more than 
5,000 meshes a minute, while machinery produces nearly 50,000 in the 
same period. In circular knitting machines the number of meshes is 
raised from 50,000 to about 500,000. Dressing machines do not seem to 
call for similar remarks, and present but few special modifications. Im- 
provement in this direction depends, in fact, more ui^on the ability of 
the workmen than upon the principle of the machine. 

'' France employs annually from 80,000 to 85,000 tons of cotton, the 
necessary machinery and material for spinning, weaving, and dressing 
amounting in value to about 400,000,000 francs. The woollen manufac- 
tures involve about the same aggregate expenditure j the mechanical 
spinning of hemp and flax and the weaving of linen about 100,000,000 
francs ; lastly, the silk trade furnishes an amount very nearly approach- 
ing to 200,000,000 francs, gi^^ng the total value of the material emx>loyed 
in these several industries as 1,100,000,000 francs. 

^' It may be calculated that the amount spent annually for construction 
represents one-twentieth of the above total — that is to say, a sum of 
58,000,000 francs, without taking into account exportation, which greatly 
exceeds the importation. 

'^The character of the improvements now in course of realization may 
be thus summed up : 

^^ 1. A more precise acquaintance ^dth the special constitution of the 
*raw materials, and, consequently, a better arrangement of the means by 
which they are transformed. 

^'2. A more rigorous application of the mechanical laws in the execu- 
tion of all the parts of the machines." 

CLASS 57.— APPARATUS AND PEOOESSES FOR SEWIlsTG AKD 
FOR MAKING UP CLOTHING. 

" Tlie machmes and tools exhibited in this class form three distinct 
series : 

^'1. Sewing machines applied to the different works of sewing and 
embroidery. 2. Machines employed in shoe-making. 3. Machines and 
apparatus used in felt-hat making. 

" The articles exhibited in this class show the advance made in the trade. 
The fii'st sewing machine which was worked for trade purposes Avas 
invented by a Frenchman named Thimonier, a tailor at Amplepuis, 
(Rhone,) the invention being patented 17th Ax)ril, 1830, and improve- 
ments therein registered 21st July, 1815. Until the year 1855 the use of 
these machines was very restricted. They were only applied in a few 
special ways, and it is since that time, and particularl}^ since 18G2, that 
they have come into general use in France." 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS 185 



MACHINES USED IN SHOE-MAKING. 

'^Machines have long been used in shoe-making, and the principal aim 
of the experiments latterly has been to replace sewing by screw pegs. 
The exhibition in this class shows the mechanical apparatus for this kind 
of work in movement, such as cutting ijresses, mounting and screwing 
machines, shears, grindstones, piercers, &c. The mounting and screw- 
ing machines, worked by steam and guided by women, admit of a rapidity 
of execution and an economy of hand work which enables the makers to 
deliver the products for consumption at a much lower price and of an 
equally good quality. We must also mention the si3ecial apparatus 
called dressing machines, intended for the mountings of the upper leath- 
ers, which was done hitherto by hand." 

APPARATUS FOR FELT-HAT MAKING. 

'^The machines serving for the manufacture of felt hats have accom- 
plished a complete transformation in the trade during the last few years. 
Previously the workman shaped, fulled, pounced, and pressed by hand. 
This system produced much inequality in the work, and, above all, great 
slowness in the production. At the ]3resent time machinery rei)laces 
hand work in general. The several machines working in class 57 serve 
for forming, fulling, and pouncing felt hats, and for shaping straw hats. 
They show a considerable progress as regards the regularity of the work, 
and, by rendering the manufacture more easy, admit of the i^roductions 
being sold at a lower price, and thus meeting in a much better degree 
the demands of the home consumption and the extended sales for exporta- 
tion." 

CLASS 58.— APPAEATUS AND PROCESSES USED IN THE 
MANUFACTUEE OF FUENITUEE AND OTHEE OBJECTS 
FOE DWELLINGS. 

''The productions exhibited in class 58 form four principal sections: 
"1. Tools for wood- work, including ribbon saws, reciprocating treadle 
saws, vertical moulding machines, planing machines with helicoidal 
blades and with disks, mortising, engine-turning, and carving machines, 
and collections of tools for hand work. 2. The worked produce of these 
machines. 3. Engra^ing machines and portrait lathes. 4. Saw blades 
and collection of wood- working tools.^' 

It embraced the api)aratus and processes used in the manufacture of 
fiuiiiture, and other objects for dwellings — familiar machinery for the 
most part that had very httle interest for the general public. America 
exhibited several ingenious contrivances, among which may be mentioned 
a gauge lathe for turning the legs of chairs, &c. It is a lathe with a 
slide-rest traversed by a screw. This rest carries two tools j one, a 
chisel, is fixed and roughs off the work ; the second, a Y-shaped cutter, 
cuts out the pattern and is guided by a template fixed to the bed of the 



186 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

lathe. A knife whose edge is molded to the form to be produced, moves 
vertically in a frame behind the lathe ; as the shde-rest passes along, this 
knife descends and smooths off the pattern produced by the iirst two 
cutters. In this manner chair legs are produced from a rough square 
log with an accuracy equal to that attained by hand, and with immense 
rapidity and cheapness. 

FRANCE. 

'' In the French section a lathe for cop;>ing medals was shown by Messrs 
Barrere & Caussande. The work and the original revolve slowly at the 
same speed. A tracing-point moves from the circumference of the model, 
so as to describe a spiral track over the surface to be copied, and rises 
and falls as it meets A^ith elevations and depressions. The vertical 
motion of this point is communicated to a drill which moves in a similar 
manner over the work. Eeduction or enlargement is produced by caus- 
ing the horizontal movement of the drill to be slower or faster than that 
of the tracing x)oint by means of change wheels. 

''The ijrincipal centres of manufacture are in the department of the 
Seine, but a certain number of machines are furnished by other depart- 
ments. The raw materials, such as cast and wrought iron and steel, are 
derived almost entirely from Frencli soiu'ces. The i)rice of cast iron 
varies from 24 francs to 26 fr^ancs the 100 kilograms, and that of iron 
castings from 30 to 35 francs the 100 kilograms ; charcoal iron, plate, 
and cast iron of the second fusion are x)referred. 

''Mechanical labor has taken the place of manual for samng up and 
shai)ing the wood 5 and in the forest, when it is imi)ossible to bTingout 
the rough timber, saw-mills are used, wliich cut up the timber on the spot, 
and convert it into pieces for parquetry, staves, &c. It took, some years 
to break through the old routine, but the perseverance of constructors 
has triumi^hed at last, and now almost all the works are i)ro\dded with 
machines of all kinds. Even carving by machinery has come into prac- 
tice. The engraving machines and portrait engines have made sensible 
progress. Lathes are used, which reproduce, with the utmost fidelity, 
and on steel, all kinds of models, without the slightest alteration of form. 
Saw blades and cutting tools have undergone considerable modifications, 
and complete the machinery in a satisfactory manner. The blades of 
ribbon saws have noAv arrived at great perfection. Hand-tools for wood- 
work leave nothing to be desired in any respect. The number of wood- 
working machines in actual operation may be estimated at 10,000. 

"The employment of machine tools has not had the effect, as might have 
been expected, of superseding mamial labor, the production having con- 
siderably increased. Simple laborers have become directors of machines, 
and workmen of the first class, following the same profession, liaA e given 
to this kind of work the impulse that it required. Wages have increased 
in large proportion. The workmen who formeily earned three francs a 
day now obtain five francs. Good workmen have become masters, and 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS 187 

establisliecl saw-mills, wliicli now form a very important branch of com- 
merce. Macliine tools are sold principally, in France, for cabinet-making, 
inlaid work, fiu'nitnre-making, cutting-out stuffs, bones and ivory. Tbey 
are also sent abroad for forest works. The number of machines work- 
ing since 1855 is estimated at 10,000, and the average cost of each, 2,000 
francs, making a total of 20,000,000 francs. Each macliine represents 
the power of foiu^ workmen, from which has to be deducted the conductor 
of the machine. The saving effected is therefore equal to three-fourths of 
the whole. 

" The committee of admission has to i^oint out the following instances of 
progress made during the last twelve years : Eibbon saws, with moulded 
or cast-iron frames and columns, which may be placed on a simi)le slab of 
stone, and worked mthout the slightest trepidation, the diameter of the 
X>ulley so much enlarged that wood of a metre in diameter may be cut up ] 
moulding and mortising machines, worked Avith greatly increased rapidity ; 
machines with helicoidal blades, for working wood across the grain and 
for planing knotty wood in all directions ) planing machines, with disks 
working vertically, by which wood may be worked square or obliquely, 
according to circumstances ) the improvement of hand tools, reciprocating 
saws, worked by treadle at the rate of 250 cuts per minute, and which 
move so easily that the workman is in no way occuj^ied with the action 
of his foot; the arris handsaw, especially useful for cutting tenons, for 
square cuts, and mitreing. Saw-blades and cutting tools are manufac- 
tured in Paris ; the largest articles are circular saws, and the smallest 
ribbon saws. The products of these, exhibited in specimens of cutting, 
which are models of precision and patience, show the perfection of the 
ribbon saw; the specimens of car^ibag and ornamental cutting and of 
carton work also exhibit a high degree of perfection." 

CLASS 59.— APPARATUS X^J} PROCESSES USED IN PAPER- 
MAKIKG, DYEi:^ra, AND PRINTING. 

The exhibits included in this class are manufacturing machines 
emx3loyed especially in the making of paper, in dyeing and printing of all 
descriptions. They form six principal series : 1. Printing machines and 
presses, apparatus for stereotype and type-founding, and for comj^osing by 
machinery; 2. Lithographic printing i^resses; 3. Machines for various 
kinds of printing and decoration on paper, roller and scraper machines 
for copperi^late and other incised engraving, and for the cheap printing 
of childien's copy books; machines for the rapid printing of railway 
tickets; self-cuttiug, stamping and registering machines. Among the 
many tools used for paper work, folding machines and i)owerful paper- 
cutting machines ought to be mentioned: 4. Machines for i^aper- making; 
5. Ai)paratus for printing paper-hangings ; 6. Accessories of calico and 
other printings; pricking machmes; singeing mchaines; stretcher for 
dyeing dyed fabrics, &c. ; accessories of printing on paper; processes of 
engTaving with the aid of galvanic deposits; seal engraving, &c., &c. 



188 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITK)N. 

"Paris and Miilhouse are the two principal centres of production for 
machinery and apparatus belonging to this class. Some of them, and 
particularly those used in stereotype work and type-founding, are modi- 
fications of American models. The precision of the machines for fine 
printing, for printing from wood-blocks, and the rapidity of production 
for ordinary works, and especially for newspapers, are the principal objects 
of the labors of the constructors. The problem of lithographic printing 
by machinery, at prices similar to those of t}T)ographical printing, has, 
within the last few years, been practically solved. The Exhibition con- 
tains many specimens of machines which have been adopted by the trade. 
The annual value of machines belonging to the first series amounts to 
1,500,000 or 2,000,000 francs, and their success is attested by the expor- 
tation of nearly one-half the amount. 

"We have to draw attention to the improvements made in the machines 
for reducing pulp, with regard to form, dimensions, and mode of con- 
struction, which are shown in the Exhibition. The machines exhibited 
consist of pulp-engines of large dimensions, of one of new construction, 
and lastly, of the accessories of the paper machine, dryers, wire-cloth, 
felt, &c. The machines for engraving, rollers for printing by means of 
circular cutters, engine-turning, electricity, and the emi^loyment of the 
pantograph, &c., are valuable auxiliaries placed in the hands of the 
roller-engravers. The printing machine figures in the Exhibition with 
its last improvements, and a special motor, adopted on account of its 
simple action." 

Class 60 was devoted to machines, instruments, and processes used in 
various works. It included among the objects from the United States a 
machine for dressing printing t;>i)es, and machines for cutting files. In 
the Erench section there were watch-makers' and jewellers' tools, and 
machines for making envelopes. Many of the machines in this class are 
described elsewhere. 

CLASS 61.— CAEEIAGES AND WHEELWRIGHTS' WORK. 

Class 61 was devoted to carriages and wheehvrights' work, comprising 
carriages entire and in parts. The display of the former was exceed- 
ingly good, especially in the English and Erench departments. There 
were a few light wagons from America, but neither in style nor variety 
of style was the exhibit worthy of this important industry. Russia dis- 
lilayed several specimens of her carriage work, which, in the lighter sort 
of road vehicles, is obviously borrowed from American models. There 
were fine specimens also in the Austrian, Prussian, and Spanish sec- 
tions. The English exhibit was characterized by elegance of form, bril- 
liance of varnish, and graceful poise. There were but few novelties. 
The most important had in view the better and quicker opening and 
shutting of barouches, so as to afford immediate protection in case of 
rain. This is done very rapidly from the driver's seat by means of a 
crank, which winds it up Avithout recpiiring to stop, or any derangement 



MACHINES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 189 

to tlie occupants. A similar contrivance, but Trorked by springs, and 
balanced to the greatest nicety, is operated from the interior. A touch 
of the strap raises the cover. 

FRANCE. 

" The productions exhibited in this class comprise : 1. Carriages of vari- 
ous kinds and forms, such as landaus, calashes, broughams, victorias, phtT- 
tons, omnibuses, American trotting carriages, fancy vehicles of all sorts, 
and children's carriages -, 2. Detached parts employed in the manufacture 
of carriages of all kinds, such as wheels, axles, springs, boxes, shafts, 
specimens of forging, &c. The principal manufactories for the produc- 
tion of dress carriages are in Paris, but there are some also at Lille, 
Lyons, Bordeaux, Toulouse, Caen, Abbeville, Colmar, Boulogne-sur-mer, 
&c. Each district, as a rule, builds carriages in ordinary use in its own 
part of the country. The dimensions, form, mounting, and the acces- 
sories of these vehicles are necessarily modified according to the nature 
of the ground, the state of the roads, and the quality of the horses of the 
country. As to the detached parts of carriages, carts, and other vehicles, 
their production is spread over the whole extent of the country j they 
exhibit, however, a tendency to concentrate themselves round certain 
centres, where, with the aid of machinery, they are produced in large 
workshops amply i)rovided with means, with great rapidity and economy. 
The materials used by the coachmaker and wheelwright are principally 
wood, iron, steel, leather, cloth, galloons or coach lace, silk and woollen 
fabrics, horse-hair, morocco, colors, varnish, &c. For a long period 
French industry depended on foreigners for many of these items, espe- 
cially springs and varnish, which came from England; but for some time 
the French makers have found nearly all they required at home. In con- 
sequence of the great variety of forms, coach-building cannot be effected 
by mechanical means. Such processes are only used in the case of certain 
detached i^arts, such as springs, axles, and wheels. The work is divided 
amongst a large number of workmen; one class of workmen make the 
wheels and the carriages; a second, the bodies; smiths and fitters make 
the springs, the axles, and all the iron- work; saddlers and stuffers pro- 
vide the fiu^niture of the interior, the seats, and also the exterior i)arts 
in which leather is employed ; and to those must be added the platers, 
the painters, the lamp-makers, the lace-makers, the carvers, &c. Besides 
the great establishments in which the carriages are produced conq^lete, 
and in which all the classes of workmen are employed, there are shops 
which confine themselves to the fitting and mounting of coach bodies 
purchased in the rough state; others are specially organized for painting 
only; and, lastly, certain persons devote themselves entirely to the pro- 
duction of designs and models. The x>roducts of the French carriage 
trade are not only sold all over France, but exi)orted to other countries. 
The number built in France may be estimated ai)proximately at about 
5,000 annually, and of the value of about 15,000,000 francs. But this 
does not include the work of repairing and keeping in order, which sur- 



190 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

passes considerably in amonnt the cost of tlie new work. The inquiry 
instituted in 1860, by the Chamber of Commerce of Paris, proved that, 
including the whole of the coach, carriage, and wheelwright's works, 
lamp-making, iron- work, painting, &c., the trade of Paris alone amounted 
to 36,000,000 francs. Although the treaty of commerce has offered great 
facilities, this is at j)resent almost nil. The exportation, on the other 
hand, is on the increase j this scarcely exceeded 1,000,000 francs from 
1847 to 1856, but it amounts, at the present time, to four times that sum. 
French carriages are exported mostly to Spain, Eussia, EgjT^)t, Portugal, 
America, Turkey, and the colonies j a certain number are even sent to 
England. 

''The principal improvements to be noted in the trade maybe summed 
up: 1. The carriages, being manufactured of the very best materials, are 
more solid than formerly; 2. The models are more varied, both as regards 
elegance, and also to suit the many different employments for which they 
are destined; 3. The manufacture is more rai^id, in consequence of 
improvements introduced in the tools employed, and of a better distri- 
bution of the work in factories." 

CLASS 62.— HAEE^ESS AND SADDLEEY. 

The productions exhibited in class 62 comprise : 1. Harness of all kinds, 
coarse and fine; 2. Collars on different systems; 3. Saddlery work; 4. 
Driving and riding whips and sticks; 5. Detached parts which enter into 
the structure of the preceding articles, and which furnish employment to 
special workmen. 

The display was by no means remarkable, and the contest was mainly 
between France and England. The latter country, some few years since, 
had almost a monopoly of this business, but French ingenuity and skill 
have made such rapid i^rogress that she can no longer boast of occupying 
the same position. Both nations, however, manufacture superb articles 
in this branch. In the Spanish department was exhibited a magnificent 
set of state harness, in which material workmanship, taste, plating, &c., 
seemed perfect. It was for eight horses and took many years to make. 
Spanish leather is famous. 

PRANCE. 

''Paris is the centre of production for dress harness, saddles, Avhips, 
riding wliips and sticks. Common harness, such as that used in trade 
and agriculture, is made in all parts ot France; its forms, wliich are very 
various, adapt themselves to the wants of the several localities where it 
is employed. Formerly the makers of harness in France obtained their 
burnished leather and polished steel spurs from England ; a few houses 
have still retained this habit, as regards certain articles, but the tanneries 
of Paris and Pont Audemer now produce leathers which will bear com- 
I)arison in all respects Avith tliose of the best English houses. As to spur 
and harness-making, the makers of Paris and those of the departments 



RAILROADS AND LOCOMOTIVES. 191 

of the Aisne, Eure, and Ardennes, are now able to produce all tlie fine 
articles. The materials employed are tanned leatiier, (bullock, cow, calf, 
pig, and horse.) Varnished leather is only used for the finer kinds of 
harness ; the white, or Hungarian leather, is now only employed in agri- 
cultm^al harness ; the ox and cow hides are employed for common and 
ordinary harness j pig skins are used for the making of saddlery. 

" The articles composing this class are made in workshops under the eye 
of the manufactiu^er. Hand labor is still most in demand. The use of 
serving machines has introduced great regidarity in the manufacture of 
many parts of the saddles and collars, but hand work is preferable for the 
pieces Avhich require great solidity. Some houses which employ them- 
selves upon military equipments, and others who work for exportation 
and the omnibus and other great comi)anies, possess large workshops, 
directed by foremen, and including cutters and preparers, as well as 
special workmen for each branch of the trade. French saddlery is 
exported all over the world, the principal markets being Egyi)t, Spain, 
Turkey, Belgium, and especially South America, Avhich sends us the raw 
hides and receives back the finished manufactured articles. 

'^It is difficult to estimate the value of the trade. It apx)ears, from a 
report made to the Chamber of Commerce of Paris, in 1860, that the 
amount of the harness manufacture in Paris alone was 12,270,000 francs ; 
and that of saddlery, spur-making, and saddlebow-making, to 2,992,000 
francs, giving a total of 15,000,000 francs and upwards, which must at 
least be doubled to represent aU France, and that without including mili- 
tarj^ harness. The exi^ortation of French saddlery exceeds 5,000,000 
francs per year. The imi)rovemeiits which have been introduced into the 
trade during the j)ast 12 years are of two kinds ; on the one hand, the 
forms have been modified so as to render them more simple than those 
formerly in use, and to get rid of heavy and ungraceful pieces; and, on 
the other hand, hand labor has been replaced with advantage in several 
branches of the trade, by mechanical means." 

CLASS 63.— EAILWAY APPAEATUS. 

The objects ranged under this class comprise the material of railways: 
Locoinotives, designs, and models of locomotives, railway carriages, 
goods wagons, signals, turn-tables, specimens of permanent way, weigh- 
bridges, models of various sj^stems of brakes and modes of communica- 
tion between passengers and guards; specimens of wheels and axles and 
other iron-work employed in the manufacture of railroad rolling stock. 
Nearly all the continental countries, Great Britain, and America, con- 
tributed to this highly important and interesting division. 

LOCOMOTmES. 

The locomotives exhibited were 32 in number. Of these, France con- 
tributed 11 passenger and goods engines, and two small tank-engmes for 
tramways; Belgium sent five; Prussia, two; Baden, one; Wurtemberg, 



192 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

one; Bavaria, one; Austria, three; the United States, one, and Great 
Britain, three passenger engines and two contractors' tank engines. 
Some of these were of enormous proportions. The Paris and Orleans 
railway exhibited a ten-wheeled tank-engine, weighing 60 tons, on a 
wheel base of 14 feet lOJ inches. English engines seldom have more 
than six wheels, and in England the insitie cylinder is largely adopted. 
On the continent the cylinders are generally outside. The workman- 
ship of the French engine-makers is fully equal to the best. In this 
industry, indeed, France has made immense strides. Only a few years 
have elapsed since the time when she used to imi)ort her locomotives 
from England. The shoe is now on the other foot. The Oreusot Iron 
Works exhibited a remarkably well-finished express engine, made from 
English drawings, indeed, but intended for an English radroad, the Great 
Eastern. It was the 16th out of an order for 40 ; the first 15 having been 
akeady delivered over to the railway comi3any, and accepted by them, 
the period of warranty for them having expired. Another singular 
instance of the way in which this manufacture is passing into new hands 
was furnished in the case of Mr. Kessler, of Esslingen, who exhibited a 
locomotive built by him, also on Enghsh designs, for an English colony, 
it being part of an order from the East India Eailway Oomi)any for 20 
engines. The workmanshij) was thoroughly good. These two engines, 
says Sir D. Campbell, afford incontrovertible proof of the possibility of 
getting English designs carried out in France, or on the continent, quite 
as well as in England, and at a cheaper rate. 

The Grant locomotive of Paterson, l^evf Jersey, attracted much atten- 
tion, and was universally regarded as the handsomest piece of work in 
the Exhibition. The handles of the various cocks were made of ivory, 
and the coveruig of the boiler, cylinder, and chimney, were of polished 
brass and German sdver. The engine-driver's house was of inlaid wood, 
and every i)articular of fine workmanship was carefully and beautifully 
wrought out. 

In the Bussian department of the Park was a model illustrating the 
working of the Mahovos system of locomotion on steep inclines from 
mines. The apparatus consisted of a truck fitted with a pair of lo-ton 
fly-wheels on an axle carried on friction rollers, which themselves rest on 
the wheels of the truck. Each train of loaded wagons has one of these 
trucks attached, and is impelled down the incline by its own weight, and 
the truck wheels, in revolving, transmit a rotary- motion to the fly-wheels 
by means of the friction rollers. On reaching the bottom of the descent 
the rollers are lifted by means of levers, clear of the truck wheels, and then 
revolve freely, oi^posing hardly any resistance to the action of the fly- 
wheels. The trucli is then detached, turned round on a turn-table, and 
attached to the head of a train of emi)ty wagons. The friction rollers are 
then let down upon the truck wheels, transmitting to them the rotatorj' 
X)ower stored up in the fly-wheels, which, it is claimed, suffices to draw the 



RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY APPARATUS. 193 

empty wagons up to the top of the incline. It certainly accomplished 
this object in the working model. 

SIGNALS TO GUARDS. 

Manj^ de\ices were exhibited in this section for enabling passengers to 
communicate with the guards. They were curious to Americans^ inas- 
much as they show how much thought has been bestowed on a subject 
which has already in the United States found a very ready solution. 
With uSy however, the conditions are somewhat different. The cars are 
open from one end to the other, and the guard is constantly passing 
through them. In Europe there are three and sometimes four different 
classes to each train, and the subdivisions extend to carriages of the same 
denomination, so that the guard is compelled to pass from coach to coach 
by means of the steps outside. This, however, would not prevent a simple 
rope passing along the entire length of the train, as with us. It would 
be sure to be within the reach of every one, while it seems that it is only 
desired to afford succor to the occui3ants of first-class carriages. This 
circumstance is the occasion of all the difficulties which European engi- 
neers have had to meet. Their effort has been to provide in first-class 
carriages a means by which the train could be arrested, and then to sur- 
round it with such difficulties and complications that no one, unless in 
extremity, woidd think of using it. And it may be added that a person 
in extremity, attacked by a maniac or a murderer, w^ould be utterly unable 
to command the resources, within his reach technically, but practically 
out of his power. We will briefly refer to one or two of these methods. 
They consist of signals communicated by acoustic, pneumatic, or electrical 
agency. The latter form the large majority, especially in France, but it 
has been found so difficidt to obtain an undisturbed connection that one- 
third of the signals fail. The way in which this scientific security is prof- 
ferred to the traveller is curious. A small triangular i^iece is taken out 
from the partition Avhich divides two compartments of a carriage, and 
Avhich otherwise are strictly separate and private. This triangle is glazed 
with two panes of glass, one in each carriage. Dangling between the two 
is a ring attached to a ^vire, and beneath it an intimation that, in case of 
accident or dire necessity, the x>assenger may break the glass with his 
elbow, pull the wire, then open a mndow and wave his arms in the air, 
by which means the guard or engineer will be duly warned. Heavy 
penalties are demanded from those who should wantonly indulge in this 
luxury, but the difficulties in the case are sufficient to deter people from 
risking their elbows and fingers in such an exploit. In cases of real 
danger a powerful ruffian could accomplish his purpose long before his 
victim had mounted to the seat, crooked his elbow, broken the window, 
pulled the bell, opened the window, and called for help in the open air. 
A better arrangement than the one we have described is that where the 
supphant pulls a peg like an organ stop. The lever thus pulled from its 
place cannot be put back. The guard knows who has summoned him, and 
13 UE 



194 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

can either succor or prosecute, according- to the merits of the case. The 
good Samaritan always comes with a chib in his hand. 

The imeumatic method of Chevalier, Oheilus & Co. is by far too com- 
plicated for descriiDtion in these pages, and its merits, we believe, have 
yet to be ascertained. Practically it is a bell rung by means of weights, 
which are kept in their place until otherAvise disposed of by i)neumatic 
means. 

RAILWAY POST OFFICES. 

In the English department the post office authorities exhibited an 
excellent working model of the carriages and system adopted in England 
for depositing and taking up the mail-bags at stations where the main 
train does not stop. The bags are susj^ended on iioles, secured with a 
suitable catch. A net sweeiDS past them, and from its velocity opens the 
catch and sweeps off the bag, which is then put in the travelling post 
office, opened and arranged en route. This is the process on the cars. 
The same naturally holds good at the stations — ^the train holds out the 
bag, and the station pole seizes it. Thus, whilst travelling at a high rate 
of speed, letters are both delivered and received without a moment's 
detention. 

The travelling post office consists of three carriages with a continuous 
communication throughout. Two of them are used for sorting the Lon- 
don and the country correspondence respectively ^ the third being devoted 
to the delivery and reception of the mail-bags. All projections in the 
interior, which are as few as possible, are covered with stuffed cushions 
in order to lessen the effect of collision on the officials. In these car- 
riages the post office clerks perform their duties. There is a i)ost box in 
the car, so that when a stoppage takes place letters may be forwarded up 
to the last moment. The latter convenience is well known and appreci- 
ated in various central parts of the United States. 

On account of the special nature of this exhibition, the committee of 
admission to this class thought itself bound to study the statistics of the 
subject, and reviewed successively the phases of this important branch 
of French industry as follows : 

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION IN FRANCE. 

^' On the 1st day of January, 1866, the whole system of railways con- 
ceded to companies amounted to 21,000 kilometres, of which the part in 
working was 13,570 kilometres; remaining unfinished 7,430 kilometres- 
The total cost of the whole of the lines in work amounted to 6,824,000,000 
francs, of which 5,840,000,000 francs was paid by the companies and 
984,000,000 francs by the state; the expenditure remaining *to be made 
by the companies amounting to about 1,900,000,000 fi\ancs. The cost 
per kilometre^ of the completed portion was 500,000 francs, (£20,000,) 
aud that of the remainder is estimated at 255,000 francs for the com- 

1 The kilometre is equal to about five-eigliths of a mile. 



RAILWAYS A^^D RAILWAY APPARATUS 195 

panies' sliare. With tlie exception of some special railways and some 
lines of secondary importance, tlie whole system of French railways is 
divided between six great companies. The following statement ^^ill show 
their importance : 

'' The Northern Eailway Company, 1,G13 kilometres conceded, 1,197 
Idlometres completed, 519 locomotives, 1,032 carriages, and 13,123 vans 
and trncks, at a total exj^ense of 92,172,022 francs for roUing stock and 
repairing sheds. 

'' The Eastern Eailway Company, 3,088 kilometres conceded, 2,512 kilo- 
metres completed, 762 locomotives, 1,962 carriages, and 16,316 vans and 
trncks, at an expense of 115,832,561 francs for rolling stock and repairing 
sheds. 

''The Western Eailway Company, 2,520 kilometres conceded, 1,857 kil- 
ometres comj)leted, 514 locomotives, 1,770 carriages, and 10,160 vans and 
trucks, at an expense of 85,734,342 francs for rolling stock and repairing 
sheds. 

''The Orleans Eailway Comi^any, 4,199 kilometres conceded, 3,067 kilo- 
metres completed, 690 locomotives, 1,945 carriages, and 12,299 vans and 
trucks, at an expense of 223,770,000 francs for rolling stock and repairing 
sheds. 

" The Paris and Mediterranean Eailway Company, 5,817 kilometres 
conceded, 3,198 kilometres completed, 1,262 locomotives, 2,108 carriages, 
and 35, 659 vans and trucks, at an exi)ense of 223,770,000 francs for roU- 
ing stbck and repairing sheds. 

"The Midi Eailway Company, 2,252 kilometres conceded, 1,496 kilo- 
metres completed, 287 locomotives, 878 carriages, and 9,092 vans and 
trucks, at an expense of 70,827,885 francs for rolling stock and repairing 
sheds. 

"Various smaller undertakings, 1,511 kilometres conceded, 243 kilo- 
metres completed; giving a gTand total of 21,000 kilometres conceded, 
13,570 kilometres completed, 4,064 locomotives, 9,695 carriages, and 
96,649 vans and trucks, at an expense of 690,476,810 francs for rolling 
stock and repairing sheds, and 655,649,400 francs for permanent way. 

"The cost of maintenance during the year 1865 was about 36.650,000 
francs for the rolling stock, or 2,800 francs per kilometre; and about 
15,000,000 francs or 1,150 francs per kilometre for the permanent way, 
&c., together 51,650,000 francs or 3,950 francs per kilometre. 

"The work done during the year 1865 gave for the whole of the lines 
the following results : Kumber of kilometres in work, 13,239 ; number of 
persons carried, 84,025,546; average number of railway travellers, 40; 
total number of travellers to one railway, 3,330,639,807; total number of 
tons of merchandise carried, 34,049,435 ; average distance carried j)er 
ton, 152 kilometres; total number of tons to one railway, 5,172,847,825; 
receipts from passengers, 184,245,213 francs; receipts from merchandise, 
314,609,184 francs; receipts from parcels, &c., 80,032,447 francs; total 
gross receipts, 578,856,874 francs; average cost to passengers per railway 



196 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

O/.O5535 average cost per ton, O/.O6O85 total cost of working, 266,202,095 
francs j ratio of expenses to gross receipts (general average) 45.98 per 
cent. 

"The employes on tlie French lines are divided (like those elsewhere) 
into the permanent staff and workmen and laborers. On the 1st of Jan- 
uary, 1866, the former numbered 60,160, and the latter 51,300, or, in all, 
111,160 i^ersons." 

REPAlRINa SHOPS OF THE RAILWAY COMPANIES. 

'^The companies, in general, do all that is required for the maintenance 
of the rolling stock in their own factories. The number of workmen and 
others employed for this service amounts to about 20,000 for the whole 
of the lines, and the salaries and wages paid amount to about 23,350,000 
francs, or an average of 1,167 francs per head. Some companies also 
construct their own carriages and locomotives. Such construction 
amounted, in 1865, to 32 locomotives, 37 tenders, 32 carriages, and 2,570 
trucks, and cost 9,180,000 francs. The railway companies have intro- 
duced the system of job work to a great extent in their machine shops, 
with division of profits amongst the members of each association of work- 
men, or pro rata wages. This organization has x)roduced the best pos- 
sible effects, and may be regarded as a starting point of co-operative 
associations. 

" The number of private construction shops, inclusive of the companies, 
is, for locomotives, six in number; two in Paris, two in Alsace, one at Creu- 
zot, and one at Fives-Lille. These six establishments can turn out annually 
at least 450 locomotives and tenders. The factories for carriages and 
trucks are nine in number, namely, six in Paris, two in Alsace, and one 
at Lyons, and they are able to build at least 1,500 carriages and 12,000 
trucks. The total amount of the business of these establishments was, 
in 1865, in round numbers, 54,500,000 francs, made up as follows : 436 
locomotives and 374 tenders, 26,700,000 francs; 1,439 carriages, 8,000,050 
francs; and 31,056 trucks, 19,800,000 francs. These figures include loco- 
motives and carriages exported. The total number of workmen employed 
in these factories amounts to about 10,000." 

WORKSHOPS AND PORGES. 

" The works are engaged in the manufacture of material for the perma- 
nent way, not including rails; they are scattered over the whole country 
and their number is considerable. Some of these are established on a 
large scale, but they are not special, and therefore no statistics of any 
utility can be presented as api)lying to raihvays in particular. As to 
rails, their production is nearly confined to the thirteen great fiu'naces 
situated on coal basins of France. Of these two are in the department 
of tlie ]N'ord, two in the Eastern, three on the basin of the Loire, two in 
that of Alais, two in Aubin, one in Oommentry, and, finally, one at 
Oreuzot. The whole of these works produced together, in 1862, the 



RAILWAYS AND RAILWAY APPARATUS. 197 

period of the largest production, 205,000 tons of rails, of the total value 
of about 40,000,000 francs; in 1865 the produce was 184,131 tons. 

"The iron works and construction shops exported in the year 18G5, 193 
locomotives and 174 tenders, for the sum of 11,900,000 francs, 420 car- 
riages at 2,700,000 francs, 1,868 trucks at 3,200,000 francs. Total 
19,800,000 francs. These figures, comi)ared with those given as the result 
of the total manufacture in France, show that the reports equalled one- 
third of the whole amount produced. As regards rails, the statistics of 
1865 show an export of 32,860 tons, or, in value, about 6,200,000 francs." 

PROGRESS MADE IN THE MATERIAL. 

"The progress made during the last ten years in the construction of 
railway material consists in the constantly augmenting power given to 
the locomotives, either with the view of overcoming the inclines of 25 to 
30 in the thousand, or of running trains of 600 to 700 tons over inclines 
of four to five in the thousand feet. Thus the power of traction has been 
carried to 7,000 kilogrammes. The use of coal has almost entirely super- 
seded that of coke by the employment of smoke consuming furnaces, or 
of well selected coal for the locomotives. The passenger carriages have 
been made more spacious and comfortable, the trucks have been increased 
in strength, and their tonnage has remained fixed at from eight to ten 
tons, with a few exceptions, in which it has been carried to fifteen tons. 
The construction of safety apparatus has been studied and its applica- 
tion persevered in. We may cite: 

" 1. The methods of communication by means of electricity between the 
guards and drivers of the train, and also between them and the passen- 
gers, the practicability of which are now being tested on all the trunk 
lines. 

"2. The improvements introduced in the signal disks, their connection 
with the points of the branch lines, in order to connect the movements 
of the whole. The breaks have been imi)roved, but they still act as 
gradual moderators of the speed, the instantaneous arrest of the train 
being in aU cases carefully avoided. Besides possessing very powerful 
locomotives, engineers are giving great attention to the construction of 
small engines, employed on railways connected with mines, and which 
are intended in future to be employed in working agricultural and other 
local lines. As regards materials, we may mention the use of cast steel 
instead of iron plate in the construction of boilers. Attempts are being 
made also to substitute iron for wood in the frame- work of carriages and 
trucks, as well as for sleepers. Lastly, as regards the cost of manufac- 
ture, the following facts deserve special notice. In 1855, locomotives 
were paid for at the rate of 2 francs 10 centimes the kilogram ; in 1866, 
the price was 1 franc 75 centimes ', for tenders, the price was 1 franc 20 
centimes and is now 90 centimes. The price of rails at the works was 
320 francs per ton, to-day it is about 185 francs. These reductions will 
give an idea of the economy exercised in the i)rovision of the material 
and general expenditure in the maintenance of railways." 



198 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

PROVIDENT AND BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS. 

^' All tlie great railway companies liave organized for their numerous 
employes funds for assistance in time of sickness and superannuation, and 
nearly all tlie companies vote to those fimds an amount equal to that 
suhcribed by their servants. Besides this, depots for the sale of articles 
of food and clothing have been estabhshed on several lines, which ena- 
ble the employes to supply themselves with the necessaries of life at 
prices varying from 10 to 50 x>er centum lower than the ordinary rate. 
At the principal centres of railway traffic, places of refreshment, per- 
fectly organized, have been estabhshed, where the employes, laborers, 
and their families may obtain food ready prepared for them at extremely 
low prices. The people are charged for what they consume, the amount 
of credit allowed being in proportion to that which is due to each per- 
son from the company. During the whole period of the high price of 
bread, the companies added to the wages of the workmen and laborers, 
and to the salaries of others whose income was below 60 pounds a year, 
a sum equal to the increase in the price of bread, not only for the officer 
or workman himself, but also for such members of his family supported 
by him. Lastly, the inauguration of courses of instruction for the Avork- 
men, and of schools for the children, and for all who need instruction, 
completes the organization of the institutions destined to improve the 
moral, intellectual, and material condition of those who are employed on 
the several railway estabhshments." 

CLASS 6L— TELEGEAPHIC APPAEATUS AXD PEOCESSES. 

In class 64, American ingenuity and invention were conspicuously dis- 
played. Every telegraphic instrument exhibited was more or less on 
the American principle, as indeed every telegraphic instrument must be. 
The practical value of telegraphy, at this day, is known in America, 
where it is not merely a political instrument of intercommunication, but 
a medium for the commonest exj)ressions of domestic wish or want. In 
whatever country or whatever way a message be sent or received, 
instnmients and methods of American origin are most in use. The fiict 
was recognized by the imperial commission, who awarded the highest 
honor in their gift to Mr. Morse and to Mr. Hughes. 

In the general application of electricity to mechanical purposes the 
French have advanced far beyond any other nation. The bell which you 
pull at the doctor's door, tingles so long as you keep your hand on the pull. 
It is a part of an electrical system which costs a trifle and acts posi- 
tively, inasmuch as the bell will continue to ring so long as you keep 
your hand on the pidl. This is the simple form. At the hotels they 
have an improvement on it. At the side of your bed there is a small 
dial, rather larger than an old fashioned- watch. Except that it is perpen- 
dicular, you might suppose that it was a compass. It is indeed supplied 
with a needle precisely like a compass. This needle has a limited ser- 



TELEGRAPHIC APPARATUS. 199 

vice to perforin, but it does it thoroughly. You press a button on the 
rim, and the needle moving on the surface of the dial tells you that the 
bell is ringing in the room of service. It continues to ring there until 
one of the domestics disconnects the wire. At that moment the finger 
of the dial returns to its place in the room whence the first communica- 
tion was made J and the visitor knows that the servant ought to come. He 
has the basis, at all events, of a complaint against the management, if 
the servant does not come. 

For raikoad purposes, also, electricity is rapidly taking the place of 
human watchfulness. On many lines there are contrivances where the 
passing of a train is automatically announced to neighboring stations. 
The carriages pass over connecting wires and the train records itself 
before and behind, so that its progress and appearance are alike indicated* 

It has been proposed, but not successfully carried into effect, to supply 
individuals and towns with the correct time by electricity 5 in other 
words, to lay it on like water. It stands to reason that if a perfect con- 
nection can be obtained, it is as easy to lay on or supply electricity as 
either water or gas. But so far practice has not come up to theory. 
The clocks regulated by electricity are the most unreliable in the world, 
and indeed the clocks of the Grand Hotel, Paris, regulated in this way 
have been the subject of common ridicule. There can be no doubt, how- 
ever, that one of these days, companies will supply the time just as 
exactly and correctly as companies now supply the wants of lighting. 

The American Commission was fortunate in having Professor Morse to 
report' on the many interesting topics connected directly or indirectly 
with telegraphy. 

FRANCE. 

" The several processes applied to telegraphic purx)oses, and forming 
class 64, have occupied but a small space in preceding exhibitions ; their 
imi3ortance, in fact, in spite of the services they have rendered, only 
dates from the time when the telegraph called the resources of electricity 
to its aid. Scientific men then entered upon a numerous series of experi- 
ments 5 and enlisting in their service a number of skilful constructors, 
they have arrived at results as im]3ortant as they were unlooked for. 
The aerial telegraiili of brothers Chappe has been made the subject of 
many improvements by the French telegraphic administration, but it 
could not attract the attention of scientific men, which was fixed on the 
discoveries and labors of Galvani, Yolta, Oersted, Ampere, and Arago. 
The first electric telegTaph apparatus was based on the action of current 
upon the magnetized needle, and the magnetization of soft iron under 
the influence of the same current. Wheatstone in England, and Morse 
in America, were the first to make (about the year 1839) experiments 
on lines of any length. The French administration adopted, in 1864, an 
apparatus fonnded on the property which soft iron possesses of becom- 
ing magnetized under the influence of an electric current: and this French 



200 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

ai3paratns, as it is called, reproclnced tlie signals of tlie Cliappe tele- 
gra])li. It was a useful conuectiug link between tlie old system and 
those wliicli were at once more simple and more complete. At the same 
time, the railway comi)anies felt the necessity of connecting together 
by means of telegraphs the i^rincipal stations on their lines, and i)laced 
simple apparatus for that purpose in the hands of their agent. Since 
1855, the Morse system has been adopted in France, where, with the aid 
of able manufacturers, it advantageously replaced the old api^aratus. 
From this period the labors of men of science and engineers have become 
more and more numerous, and a great number of new systems have 
been attempted within a short time. Subsequently a telegraphic imnting 
a]3paratus was introduced, more rapid in its action than those with arbi- 
trary signals, and electro-chemical apparatus reproducing with great 
facility the exact image of the despatch or drawing confided to it for 
transmission. The telegraphic stations are connected with each other 
by metallic conductors insulated from the ground and fixed to supports, 
the elevation, form and dimensions of which vary according to the nature 
of the weight they have to suj^port. Exi)eriments with undergTound 
lines have been made from the very commencement of electric telegraphy, 
and have since greatly increased j and the results already obtained hold 
out a legitimate hope that the engineers who are persevering in these 
interesting labors will attain the object for which they are emplojdng 
their time and talents. The submarine lines have been brought into 
successful action since the year 1850 5 their number has increased con- 
currently mth the imiirovements which have been introduced into tele- 
graphic industry, and have resulted in the recent successful lalying of 
the transatlantic cable. 

'' This special exhibition shows the immense resources which may be 
looked for in the very varied applications of electricity to telegTaphy; 
they include not only apparatus for writing or transmitting thoughts, 
but also the piles or sources of electricity 5 and the conductors, aerial, 
underground, and submarine, which are their indispensable auxiliaries.^ 

CLASS G5.— CIVIL EKGINEEEmG, PUBLIC WOKKS, AND 

AECHITECTUEE. 

The objects exhibited in class 65, under the general head of civil engi- 
neering, public works and architecture, comprised four series of gToups, 
which with much interesting matter relating to France wiU be found 
described at length beyond, ^o nation is more occupied T\dth public 
works involving the highest engineering skill, or possesses a better 
method of tabulating all that has been accomplished or is yet in progress. 
The French display Avas superb. It consisted of models, admirably got 
up, of bridges, viaducts, reservoirs, docks, tunnels, &c., mth plans and 
particulars of unquestionable accuracy and minuteness. Among these 
were two models of the swing bridge of Brest, which has a larger span 
than any bridge of sinular construction in the world, being 571 feet, 



CIVIL ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC WORKS" 201 

spanned by two wrouglit-iron lattice frames, reTolving upon turn-tables. 
The foundations of the piers are on the solid rock. There were models 
and drawings, of several other important engineering works which have 
recently been completed in the vicinity of Paris. 

LIGHT-HOUSES. 

One of the most conspicuous objects in the Park was the iron light- 
house constructed by Mr. Eigolet, and intended for practical use on the 
rocks called Les Bouvres^ situated midway between the islands of 
Guernsey and Breliat, off the coast of Brittany. The rock on which 
this light-house is to be built is in the middle of the south edge of the 
shoal; its summit is washed at high tide. The masonry foundations are 
6 feet 10 inches high; the height of the iron column is from base to 
floored gallery, 158 feet 6 inches; to top of lantern 184 feet 2 inches. 
In plan it is a sixteen-sided polygon, 36 feet 6 inches at the base and 
13 feet 2 inches at the top ; the light being 174 feet above high water. 
Round the base of the column are the store-rooms and lining rooms of 
the light-house keepers ; above these are rooms for the accommodation 
of persons rescued from shii^wreck. The staircase is in the centre. The 
chief pecidiarity of this fine piece of work was that the structure 
depended for its strength wholly ui^on its skeleton ; the external iron 
plates bemg merely a shell upon which no reliance is placed for strength. 
In wrought-iron light-houses of ordinary construction, strength is ob- 
tained by riveting together the plates by which it is com^^osed. The 
light is dioptric, revolving u^^on 10 steel friction rollers ; the sui^ply of oil 
is regulated by clockwork. 

In the English section was an important exhibit of the dioptric sys- 
tem of August Fresnel, the one now most generally in use. It consists 
of a structure of segments of glass enveloping a central flame, whose 
focal rays are parallelized in a horizontal direction and deflected, in the 
case of fixed lights, in meridian planes only, while in revolving lights 
the rays are gathered into a number of cylindrical beams, which are 
made to pass successively before the observer by the rotation of the 
apparatus. 

The Trinity House corporation exhibited the application of the mag- 
neto-electric light. The machine is complicated, but it answers its pur- 
pose, and is being generally adopted. 

MOUNT CENIS TUNNEL. 

In the Italian quarter were x)lans and sections of the famous Mount 
Oenis tunnel, which, when finished, will connect France with Italy by an 
unbroken line of raikoad communication going through the Alps. The 
works, which were commenced in 1857, were first carried on by manual 
labor, a slow and difftcult process. They are now carried on by machinery 
driven by comjiressed air, and the progress is much more rapid. The 
;^resent rate is about one yard a day on the French side. The excava- 



202 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

tion proceeds from both ends, and it is now stated that the probable 
time when the workmen will meet and shake hands in the middle of the 
Alps mil be some time in 1873. 

A series of plans illustrated the principal public buildings and restora- 
tions executed in Paris during the last 12 years. The importance of 
these works may be estimated by their cost, which exceeded 150,000,000 
francs. 

SUEZ CANAL. 

One of the fullest, and at the same time most interesting, exhibits in 
the way of ci^dl engineering was that made by the company now engaged 
iu constructing a canal through the isthmus of Suez, by which the Medi- 
terranean will be connected with the Eed sea. The distance is 72 miles, 
as the crow flies, and the levels of the two seas only differ to the extent 
of 6J inches. The canal will be about 100 miles in length, of which 37 
miles are in cutting, while 63 miles are at or beneath sea-level. In order 
to obtain a sufficient supi)ly of fresh water, an additional canal had to 
be constructed, bringing its sui)ply from the Mle, a distance of 44 miles. 
The general dimensions of the maritime canal are : Width of water-level 
in embankment, 328 feetj ditto in cutting, 190 feet; width at bottom, 72 
feet; depth, 26 feet 3 inches. 

In the American department was exhibited a plan of the engineering 
stjheme recently adopted for suppl;^dng the city of Chicago with water, 
by which the lake is tapped at a sufficient distance from the shore to 
insure purity of supply. It attracted much attention, as a bold and suc- 
cessful scheme of engineering. 

FRANCE. 

''The products exhibited in class 65 form four principal series : 
''1. Materials, including natural and artificial stone, bricks, tiles, pot- 
tery, lime, cement, plaster, asphalt, and slate. 2. Productions of various 
trades, occupying a position of greater or less imi^ortance in the art of 
building, such as works in zinc, lead, and copper, sanitary apparatus, 
joiners' work, and parquetry. 3. Blacksmiths' and whitesmiths' work 
for building and furniture. 4. Apparatus, machines, and processes used 
in the execution of architectural and ci^dl engineering works, as well as 
the models and samples of those works. 

''Amongst the trades of this class some are of the very highest neces- 
sity, and are represented in every department of Prance ; for instance, 
the contractor for public and private works, the mason, the carpenter, 
and the smith; the others, and especially those whose productions are 
executed in metal, are situated in those localities which are most favor- 
able to their system of manufacture and to the nature of their particu- 
lar occupation. Around the principal industrial and metallurgical cen- 
tres are congregated the construction factories for extensive Avorks in 
metal, such as that of Creuzot, Pourchambeault, and the great estab- 



CIVIL ENGINEERING AND PUBLIC WORKS. 203 

lisliments in Paris and its environs. Iron-work, snch as bolts, latclies, 
window fastenings, screw, and otlier ironmongery and metal- work used 
in buildings, is principally manufactured in large works at Obarleville, 
in tlie Ardennes 5 Aigle, in tlie Ornej Eugle, in the Eure; St. Etienne, 
in tbe Loire; Beaucoort, in tlie Haut RMn; and in tlie department of 
the Somme. Black and whitesmiths' work, including locks, railings, 
gates, &c., is concentrated in the department of the Somme, Fouquieres, 
Bourg-Dault, Escarbotin, Bettancourt, in the department of Orne, Jura, 
Loire, St. Etienne, St. Bonnet-le-Chateau, of the Haut Rhin, and of the 
Haut Saoiie. The manufacturers of the Faubourg St. Antoine, of Paris, 
are famous for locks for furniture. The manufacture of objects in cop- 
per, lead, and zinc, cast or stami)ed, is also practiced on a large scale in 
Paris. 

^' The principal centres for the trade in cutting and other tools are Mols- 
heim, Zornhoff, in the Haut Rhinj Pont-de-Eoide and Yalensigney, in 
the Doubs; St. Etienne, in the Loire; and Paris. Until a short time ago, 
the difficulty of transport obliged the contractors to suiiply themselves 
with stone within a relatively small radius. The exhaustion of the good 
quarries, especially at Paris, the impetus given everywhere to contrac- 
tors, and, above all, the development of the means of communication, 
have greatly modified the old habits. Thus the circle of supply of the 
capital extends, at the present moment, to the mountains of the Yosges, 
the Jura, and the Aljis. For the purpose of trying the materials, which 
are offered daily, and are often little known, the administration has 
opened special laboratories, where the materials of all kinds presented 
by the public are analyzed and tried gratuitously. 

"The methods of manufacture peculiar to the numerous trades which 
contribute to the execution of architectural and civil engineering works 
cannot be set forth in a description at once general and abridged. All 
that can be affirmed is, that in no specialty has the simultaneous concur- 
rence of science and practice, and the intelligent use of machinery, pro- 
duced results more favorable to the welfare of all and the iirogress of 
public prosperity. 

'^The condition of the work people is as diversified as the nature of 
the occupations to which they apply themselves, whether sedentary or 
nomad. The workmen present the greatest variety of character, habits, 
and natural disposition. The inhabitants of certain districts seem more 
liarticirlarly suited to certain lines of business. The skilled operatives 
of the centre of France, in the department of Creuze and Correze, pos- 
sess a special attribute for the masonry works called limousinage; the 
workmen from Piedmont and the neighboring mountains for mining and 
quarrying. The habits of periodical emigTation, and the traditional and, 
it may be said, inherent skill with which the men of St. Etienne and of 
some other localities handle the file and the chisel, are well-known facts, 
and numerous similar examples might be quoted. 

" The immense enterprises carried out lately have occasioned great 



204 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

changes in tlie old usages. Tlie mocliflcations wliicli liave resulted 
tlierefrom in tlie habits of the inhabitants of the country" give rise to 
the gravest social and i^olitical questions. The trade in building mate- 
rials is generally local; nevertheless, there are those exceptions, ah-eady 
noticed, occasioned by the necessity of supplying Paris and some other 
great towns. On the other hand, certain materials, on account of their 
special qualities or particular circumstances, are sought after far from 
the places of production. Of these are the gTanites of Brittany and 
ll^ormandy, the calcareous stones of Caen, the marbles of the Pyrenees, 
the serpentines of the Yosges and the Alps, and similar stones, more or 
less x>recious, which the soil of France yields in such abundance ; the 
slates of Angers and Ardennes ; the various products in terra-cotta ; the 
plasters of Paris, used for light objects and in-door work 5 the limes of 
Teil, in the Ardeche, particularly adapted to sea works; the cements of 
Passy, Boulogne, and Grenoble; the asphalts of Seyssel, &c. 

" In the large workshops are constructed edifices, metallic bridges, 
cranes, dredging machines, lighters, &c., which are exx)orted to Eussia, 
Spain, Egj^)t, America, &c. The trade of black and white smiths' work 
has its princii)al entrepot in Paris, and the amount of its exports is very 
considerable. 

'' To give an idea of the activity, during the last 12 years, of the branch 
of national work represented in class 65^ it is suificient to state, that in 
that time 9,000 kilometres of railway have been made in France; that 
the works in ports for the lighting and erection of beacons on the coasts? 
for the salubrity of towns, the sewers and the distribution of water, have 
received a proportionate impulse, and that the greater part of the large 
towns of France have been completely transformed by their application. 

^' The committee of admission of class 65 point out, among the princi- 
pal technical imi)rovements realized since 1855 — 

''1. The progress made in the trades of hydraulic limes, cements, arti- 
ficial stones, potteries, slates, and asphalts; and in that of hammered 
metal, applied to the preservation and decoration of roofs. 2. The 
increase of the use of metal structures, which are more and more appre- 
ciated every day. 3. The increase in the number of machines emi^loyed 
in working wood for joiners' and other work. 4. The constantly increas- 
ing api)lication of compressed air in places deep and difficult of access. 
5. The ingenious methods of lifting heavy bridges, viaducts, and other 
metallic works. G. The new system of movable dams. 7. The recently- 
invented and powerful dredging apparatus. 8. The application of elec- 
tricity to lighthouses and the new combinations made mth a view to 
assist navigation, among which may be reckoned the creation of a sys- 
tem of coast semaphores." 

CLASS 66.— NAViaATIO:^^ AND LIFEBOATS— YACHTS A:^D 

PLEASURE BOATS. 

Tlie governments of France and Euglandwere the principal contributors 
to class (jG. The English admiralty contributed a complete series of model s 



NAVIGATION AND BOATS. 205 

of all the types of ships introduced into the royal navy since the adop- 
tion of the scre^Y propeller, and a French firm exhibited a very valuable 
historical series of models of merchant ships, indicating the many and 
varied changes which have taken place since 1735. 

In the English collection of models was the armor-plated steam gun- 
boat Water ^vitch, remarkable for having a hydraulic or jet propeller. By 
this plan she draws in the water from the sea through a sort of sieve in 
her bottom. The water is then taken up by a turbine wheel, or centrifu- 
gal pump, driven by steam, and thrown out aft with considerable force, 
the action of the water thrusting the boat forward. The Waterwitch is 
a double-ender, Avith a rudder at each end, and has attained the not very 
remarkable speed of 8.8 knots. 

Fishing boats were largely exhibited by i^orway and Sweden, and life- 
boats by England and France. 

Benoit-Champy, the president of the admission committee for class GG, 
makes the following observations upon boats for river navigation : 

''The number of boats registered at the office of the superintendence 
of the Seine navigation is about 2,000. The continued extension of boat 
racing, by directing the eftbrts of the maker toward one special object, has 
almost sui)pressed the pleasure-boat of former days. The river sail navi- 
tion makes use solely of boats of American construction, which are called 
centre-boards. The Margot, the first American clipper known in France, 
was imx)orted in 1847, and brought about a comi)lete change in the con- 
struction of vessels for river navigation. The plans and models have been 
improved fi'om time to time since that period, and can now artistically 
compete with the American builder. During the last few years a great 
taste for yachting has sprung up among French amateurs, and the 
Parisians have endeavored to make their clippers of such a size as to 
reproduce the real yacht models. These large clii^pers are remarkably 
swift, and take a most successful part every year in their ocean regattas. 
Paris and Rouen are the two principal manufacturing centres for the 
construction of clippers. The manufacturers of Marseilles, Toulon, and 
Bordeaux i)roduce more especially sea yachts. France has in its several 
ports 4,096 pleasure boats of all sizes, mounted by 5,776 amateurs, or reg- 
istered, marines. The boats which took part in the races of the Society 
of the Eegates Parisiennes during the years 1865 and 1866 represent 
alone a capital of 500,000 francs. 

"The steam yachts, used for races properly speaking, are gradually dis- 
appearing, and are replaced by boats more especially designed for trav- 
elling. .Their number increases daily, and the Parisian yachting i)os- 
sesses already" three steam yachts. The use of new engines, the elegance 
and comfort of internal arrangements, the application of well- studied 
forms combined to swiftness and safety, the realization of great speed, 
with a reduction in the exx)enditure of strength, are the imi)rovements 
exhibited in the recent constructions. One of the most difficult prob- 



206 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

lems would be to create mixed models of steam yachts for the sea and 
riverj enabling' amateurs to undertake all kinds of excursions. Steam- 
boats seem to be best adapted for both travelling and pleasure excur- 
sions. The tour through France by means of rivers and canals is the 
aim and ambition of the leading yachtmen. Paris, Eouen, and Angers 
have produced interesting specimens, but the most important have come 
from Havre." 

In the United States section the model of the American yacht Fleet- 
wing received the recognition of a bronze medel, and the same award 
was made to the model of the tackle for disengaging ship's boats, exhib- 
ited by Messrs. Brown & Level. There were several other exhibits inclu- 
ding models of life-boats, life-saving rafts, fishing smacks, rudders and 
oars. 



GROUP YII. 

FOOD, FRESH OR PRESERVED, IN VARIOUS STATES 
OF PRESERVATION, 

Class 67. Cereals and other Farinaceous Products, with their derivation. — 
Class C8. Bread and Pastry. — Class 69. Fatty Substances used as food; 
Milk and Eggs. — Class 70. Meat and Fish. — Class 71. Vegetables and 
Fruit.— Class 72. Condmients and stimulants; Sugar and Confectionery. — 
Class 73. Fermented Drinks. 

The objects embraced in these classes, especially the first six, although 
of the highest imi)ortance and even interesting when on the spot, cannot 
be sufficiently preserved or kept fresh for the purposes of a report, save 
by a i^rofessional pen, wielded for professional criticism. The display 
Avas a large one, but the sj)ecimens were rarely well arranged. Peoi3le 
constantly imagine that the common products of their country are not 
worth taking pains with, when in reality it is precisely these common 
products that are of AT.tal and national worth. It may be added here 
that, in almost every imi3ortant instance, there was a restaurant con- 
nected with each country, where the various foods, &c., could be practi- 
cally tested. 

In the Algerian section were several good specimens of the fruit of the 
Carica ixqKiya, or i)apaw. This, when young, is used for sauce, and water 
impregnated with the juice acquires the property of rendering aU sorts 
of meat steeped in it tender. Chickens of excessive maturity can be 
mollified by feeding them on the leaves and fruit, and joints of exceed- 
ing toughness are prepared by hanging them for a sufficient time in the 
branches of the tree. 

There was an excellent collection from the United States, consisting of 
all kinds of fruits preserved in sx)irits. 

CLASS 67.— CEREALS A^^D OTHER EATABLE FARINACEOUS 
PRODUCTS, WITH THEIR DERIYATIYES. 

The i)roducts which are included in this class comprise — 
1. Cereals, including different kinds of wheat, rye, rice, maize, millet, 
buckwheat, and the productions these grains yield for making flour. 2. 
Vegetable flour. 3. Potato feculse, tapioca, sago, arrow-root, salep, and 
other Enghsh productions. 4. Grain, ground and packed. 5. Semolinas 
and groats. 6. Macaroni, vermicelli, nouilles, and pates of all kinds of 
wheaten flour, pure and mixed. 7. Gluten and starch. 8. Alimentary 
i:)reparations, produced either from meals, feculas, or vegetables. 



208 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

CEREALS OF FRANCE. 

The various kinds of corn and wlieat, with their i)roductions, form, in 
the French exhibition, 11 divisions, corresponding to the 11 territorial 
divisions : 

'^1. Paris and its radii, comprehending Isle of France, Brie, Bauce, 
Gatinais, Champagne, Hnrepoix, and French Yexin. 2. The ]N"ormandy 
region, embracing Bessin, Avranchin, Canx, and I^ormandy Yexin. 3. 
The Brittany region, which includes upi)er and lower Brittany, Yendee, 
Poitou, and Anjou. 4. The Bordeaux region, containing Saintonge, 
Angoumais, Perigord, Bordeaux, Bazadals, and les Landes. 5. The Lan- 
guedoc region, comprising the Basque provinces, the Small Landes, 
Chalosse, Oondomais, Beam, Armagnac, Foix, Roussillon, Lauragnais, 
Albigeois, and Karbonne. 6. The Provengal region, comx^rehending 
lower and ui)per Provence, Mce, Avignon, and Corsica. 7. The Lyons 
region, including Dauphine, Beaujolais, Savoie, Lyons, Bresse, Franche- 
Comte, Bourgogne, and Mverne. 8. The Auvergne region, comprising 
ui)per and lower Auvergne, Limousin, Boulonnais, Forey, and Yivarais. 
9. The Maine region, including Maine, Blaisois, Touraine, Berry, and 
Orleans. 10. The Lorraine region, comprehending Lorraine, Yosges, 
Alsace, Barrois, Messin, and Berthelois. 11. The Flanders region, in 
which is included Picardy, Hainault, Flanders, Boulonnais, and Artois. 

^•In 1820 the number of hectares covered with corn in France was 
4,683,788, which have produced 54,347,720 hectolitres. In 1857, 6,543,530 
hectares produced 110,462,000 hectolitres. So, from 1820 to 1857, the 
number of hectares sown with corn has augmented 50 per cent., and the 
production has nearly doubled. At the present time the number of hec- 
tares cultivated is 7,000,000 ; but the production has not increased since 
1857. France exports much more flour than wheat. In 1864 the exporta- 
tion of wheat amounted to 1,308,480 hectolitres imground, and to more 
than 2,000,000 hectolitres of flour. Eye is divided into two classes- 
March rye and muter rye. France yields yearly 20,000,000 to 22,000,000 
hectolitres of rye, of which 1,000,000 is employed in the distilleries of 
northern France, Belgium, and Holland. The growth of rye is dimin- 
ishing, and is being replaced with advantage by wheat, wherever the 
nature of the soil admits of it. Barley is divided into two classes : 1. 
Bearded barley, common barley, &c. ; 2. Bare-eared barley. Celeste bar- 
ley, &c. The barley harvests yield 16,000,000 hectolitres per year, of 
which 2,000,000 are used in distilleries and breweries. Of these 2,000,000 
hectolitres more than one-fourth is sent to England. Oats are divided 
into two classes : 1. Winter oats ; 2. Spring oats. N'early as much oats 
as corn are grown in France. The harvest is valued at 90,000,000 hec- 
tolitres. Oats are rarely exported; on the contrary, they are often 
imported from Odessa, Sweden, and Ireland. 

"liuckwlieat is divided into two classes— common buckwheat andTar- 
tary buckAvheat. Buckwheat is grown to an amount of from 6,500,000 
to 7,000,000 hectolitres yearly, which is consumed entirely in France. 



FOOD, FRESH OR PRESERVED. 209 

''The production of maize is confined to three regions : the southwest 
region, comprehending Guyenne, Poitou, &c. ; the southern region, com- 
prising Languedoc, Provence, &c. j and the eastern region, including 
Bresse, Dijonnais, Alsace, &c. 

"Millet is divided into two classes — millet in ears and millet in pani- 
cles. The production of maize and millet amounts to at least 6,000,000 
hectolitres. 

"The sorghos form only one class. The feculas are divided into two 
classes — that which comes from seed and that which is made from roots. 

"The French production of potatoes amounted to 100,000,000 hecto- 
litres per year before the outbreak of the potato disease, 15 years since. 
It is difficidt now to estimate the exact product of this plant. About 
10,000,000 hectolitres are planted ; 13,000,000 or 14,000,000 are made into 
fecula ; the rest is employed, one moiety for human food and the other 
for animals. A great part of the fecula is used for making sugar and 
certain kinds of syrups. It is estimated that for this manufacture alone 
the i^roduce of more than 7,000,000 hectolitres of potatoes was employed 
during the year 1805. Since the disease the average jield per hectare 
has been 77 hectolitres -, before that time it amounted to 110 hectolitres. 

" The manufacture of pates may be divided into classes : 1. The northern 
regions — Paris, Yersailles, Meaux, &c. ; 2. The midland regions — Cler- 
mont, Auvergne, Lyons, &c. ; 3. Southern regions — Marseilles, Mce, &c. 
The amount of pates consumed in France has much increased. The addi- 
tion of fresh gluten is derived from the manufacturers of starch by the 
washing process, which allows of the richness of the pates being aug- 
mented at will, and has therefore tended to diminish in great part the 
difference of quality that existed between the French and Itahan pates. 
The latter owe their sui)eriority merely to the nature of the grain, which 
is richer and more glutinous than the French grain. 

"France exported, in 1855, 1,100,000 kilograms of pates, of which a 
quarter was for Switzerland, and the rest for America, the Antilitos, 
Guyane, the United States, England, and Belgium. The price of the 
pates varies according to the price of wheat. 

"The committee of class 67 point out as an evidence of the progress 
realized since the exhibition of 1865, in addition to the general imj)rove- 
ment of cultivation : 

"1. The extended cultivation of the best white and red corn, [wheat,] 
which have less bran and possess more elasticity and extensibility of glu- 
ten, and therefore produce flour whiter and of better flavor. 

"2. The almost total change in the mode of obtaining starch, which, 
instead of being procured by fermentation, Avhich causes the decomposi- 
tion of the gluten, is obtained by the means of washing, a process which 
produces starch in greater quantities, and much whiter, without dete- 
riorating the gluten ; the preservation of gxain by means of vacuums 5 
the drying of the flour by mechanical api^aratus, working in the open 
air, which produces flour well dried that can be kept a long time." 
14 UE 



210 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

CLASS 69.— FATTY SUBSTA:t^CES USED AS FOOD j MILK AISTD 

EGGS. 

Class 69 includes : 1. Conserved milk and the diiferent varieties of 
cheese 5 2. AUmentary fatty substances, such as butter, olive oil, and 
animal grease ; 3. Hens' and other birds' eggs. 

The foUomng review of the iDroduction in this class is from the report 
of the committee of admission : 

MILK AND CHEESE. 

^' The produ.ction of cow's milk is by far the most considerable, the num- 
ber of cows in France amounting to more than 5,000,000. The depart- 
ments of Calvados, Orne, Manche, Seine Inferieure, Loiret, l^ord, and 
the Yosges, are those which supi)ly the largest quantity of milk. For 
Paris alone the consumption amounts to about 500,000 litres a day. Milk 
is sold at from 10 to 40 centimes a litre, according to the localities and 
the quality ; from 25 to 30 per cent, of water is often added. The frauds 
practiced in the trade are easily discovered by means of the cremometer 
^nd butyrometer, and by the amount of sugar in the milk. The preser- 
vation of milk is obtained by the original process of M. Appert, and by 
new improved systems. 

" The production of cheese in France is considerable, particularly in the 
departments of Aveyron, Seine Inferieure, Calvados, Loiret, Marne, 
Seine d'Oise, Creuse, Cantal, Yosges, &c. Cheese is generally made by 
coagulating the caseine of the milk by means of pressure, in a temi)era- 
ture of 68 to 77 degrees Fahrenheit, and straining it on a cloth or in tin 
molds. The caseine holds the globules of butter, and constitutes the 
commercial products known under the name of fresh cheeses, such as 
those of Neufchatel. When, on the other hand, strong cheeses are required 
of more decided flavors, and intended for preservation, they are packed 
in sea salt, and exposed to currents of air in a cool place, and care is 
taken to turn them often. Under the influence of crj^ptogamious growths 
the caseine becomes separated, and gives rise to various products, 
which communicate new properties to the cheese. The conditions of 
this manufacture differ according to the varieties of the cheese, thus : 
Eoquefort cheese is made with sheep and goat's milk, in specially con- 
structed cellars, at a constant temperature of about 53 degrees Fahren- 
heit ; Neufchatel cheese is prepared with milk and cream ; that of Cam- 
embert with milk skimmed slightly, and with particular care ; that of 
Brie is obtained in the form of a soft paste ; and in the manufacture of 
double-cream cheese cream alone is employed. The imi)ortations of for- 
eign cheeses rose in 1862 as high as 5,262 tons, and the exports to 5,027 
tons, 1,660 tons of which were of our o^Yll production. The annual con- 
sumption of cheese is very considerable, Paris alone consuming 5,422 
tons, and it would not be far from the truth to state that, for the whole 
of France, this consumption siu'passes 100,000 tons. The Eoquefort 



FOOD, FRESH OR PRESERVED. 211 

cellars deliver annually to the trade 2,750 tons; the sale of Camembert 
cheese amounts to 500,000 francs 5 and the quantity of Brie cheeses that 
is sold annually in Paris represents a sum of 1,400,000 francs." 

ALOIENTARY FATTY SUBSTANCES. 

''The departments of Calvados, Orne, Manche, Seine Inferieure, Indre 
and Loire, Loiret, Nord, Pas-de-Calais, and Brittany, are the principal 
places of production for butter. These fatty substances are much used in 
France, and are extracted from the cream of the milk by means of vio- 
lent agitation at a moderate temperature in a cylindrical vessel of wood 
or tin. Steam engines and horse mills are rarely used. The quality of 
the milk has a great influence on that of the butter. The pleasant odor 
pervading certain butters, such as those of Isigny, is produced by the 
plants of the natural meadow lands. The fine butters are generally of 
an orange color, and possess a delicate flavor; the butter of inferior 
qualities being of a lighter color. To insure the preservation of butter, 
it is placed in stone jars, after having been washed several times, and 
mixed with five or six per cent, of sea salt. This is salt butter. In 
some localities the butter is warmed, either simi^ly over the fire or in a 
vessel placed in boiling water on the fire. The scum is then taken off, 
and when the liquid butter is clear it is poured into stone jars, ^o 
fatty substance used for food is so much in demand throughout France 
as butter. The quantity of this i)roduct exj^orted in 1862 represented a 
sum of 28,962,142 francs, while the quantity consumed in Paris alone 
amounted to 24,595,850 francs in value. If it be calculated that, for the 
89 departments of France, the consumption is six or seven times as 
large, it may be estimated that the total production exceeds 200,000,000 
francs. The market j)rice of the various descriptions of butter varies 
from 2 francs 20 centimes to 8 francs the kilogram. The exi^ortation of 
butter and cheese has reached, during the first nine months of the year 
1866, the sum of 58,100,000 francs, and the importation to 16,600,000 
francs. 

"Olive oil, the best of the alimentary oils, is extracted from the fruit of 
the olive tree, which is grown in some of the departments of the south 
of France, in Corsica, and in Algeria. The oil obtained by the first 
expression, or cold drawn, is distinguished by the name of virgin oil. 
The second extraction, which is effected by heat, i^roduces a condiment 
much less agreeable to the taste. OEillete oil, and oil from some animal 
greases, are also used as articles of consumption.'' 

hens' and OTHER BIRDS' EGGS. 

"Hens' eggs, of which the consumption is so immense, are principally 
sui)i3lied by the departments of Calvados, Orne, Somme, Seine Infe- 
rieure, Oise, Aisne, Eure et Loir, Indre et Lou*, Seine et Marne, and Pas- 
de-Calais. In 1853 the quantity of eggs received in Paris amounted to 
174,000,000 ; but the consumption of this article is much more consider- 



212 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

able at tlie present time. Ducks, Guinea fowls, geese, and turkey eggs 
are occasionally used.'' 

CLASS 70.— MEAT, FISH, AND VEGETABLES. 

Taking into consideration the close connection existing between tlie 
products ranged under the classes 70 and 71, which, in many cases, are 
shoAYu by the same exhibitors, it was decided that these two classes 
should be united and submitted to the consideration of one jury, which 
accordingly undertook the control of the united classes and drew up the 
subjoined report: 

"The products included in class 70 are meat, fish, and fresh fruit and 
vegetables. Li the study of the organs which accomplish the digestive 
process in the human system, such as the active principles (diastasis, 
pepsin or gasterasis, pancreatic juice, &c.) which di^dde and dissolve 
the food, it is evident that man must depend for his nutriment upon 
animal and vegetable products. Besides the soil and the water, which 
promote the digestive and assimilative processes, it is certain that for 
complete nutrition the concurrence is needed of substances taken from 
the three natural kingdoms, and which comprehend four distinct classes 
of food, viz : azotic, fat, feculent or sweet, and saline. The chief charac- 
teristic of meat and fish in this respect is the abundance of azotized 
matter assimilated to our own tissues, and which supi)ly the fortifying 
quality in our food. It is of the greatest importance at the present 
moment that we should encourage the reproduction of these elements, 
and it is the insufficient supply of them which most materially affects 
the strength and health of populations, particularly of those whose 
daily labor renders a reparative nutrition absolutely necessary to life. 
On investigating the average consumption of the alimentary products 
taken from the bovine, ovine, and i^orcine species, and those supplied by 
IDOidtry, game, fish, eggs, and cheese, we find that each individual in the 
population of the eighty-nine departments of France consumes only 57 
grams of these azotized alimentary products, while the average ration of 
an inhabitant of Paris amounts to 273 grams daily. ^ 

"The flesh of slaughtered horses is being brought into use in France, 
when, after having been submitted to the inspection of the proper offi- 

^ On the basis of the statistical data furnished to the president of these classes by the min- 
ister of agriculture, commerce, and public works, it is estimated that the consumption of 
butcher's and pork butcher's meat during the year 1862, in the chief towns of departments 
and arrondissements, and in those towns where the population reaches 10,000, averages 
for each individual 53 kilograms 600c. per annum, or 146 grams a day, a fact which is 
still farther corroborated by the following quinquennial return: Aggregate consumption: 
beef, 131,140,910 kilograms ; cow meat, 57,994,541 kilograms ; veal, 61,304,468 kilograms ; 
mutton, 62,147,482 kilograms; lamb or kid, 5,268,614 kilograms; pork, 6,110,744 kilo- 
grams; imported meats, 43,324,711 kilograms; at an average price of 1 franc 18 centimes 
per kilogram for beef, 1 franc 4 centimes for cow, 1 franc 25 centimes for veal. 1 franc 27 
centimes for mutton, and 1 franc 8 centimes for lamb and kid. The total weight of animal 
food consumed amounted to 422,288,187 kilograms among a population of 7,878,329, giving 
an average for each individual of 53 kilograms 60c. 



FOOD, FRESH OR PRESERVED. 213 

cers, it is declared wholesome. This meat makes good soup, and when 
boiled has an agreeable flavor, although rather hard. Certain parts, 
above all the fillet, fiu^nish excellent roasts. For some time past horse- 
flesh has been advantageously employed as food by the inhabitants of 
the north of Germany. 

'' By consulting the report of the committee of class 82, and of the 
committee charged with organizing the arrangement of live fish, Crus- 
tacea, molluscs, &c., it will be seen Avhat means are used for the mainte- 
nance and multiplication of marine and fresh water species, which 
furnish such abundant supiflies of animal food for our subsistence. 

^'Eipe fruit exercises a favorable influence on the nutrition and health 
of mankind by introducing sweet, aromatic, azotized, acidulated, and 
saline principles into their alimentary rations, but it does much real 
harm when it is wrongly used in too large a proportion, or forms, as it 
does in some cases, nearly the whole of the habitual food. 

" These alimentary substances, which help to vary and render our food 
more varied and wholesome, have increased to a very large extent in 
France since the cultivation of kitchen gardens on a large scale has so 
much developed on the coasts of Brittany, favored by the gentle and 
temiierate climate of those maritime districts. 

" A large quantity of the produce of this special culture has been lately 
exi:>orted to England 5 above all, since, thanks to the increased and 
rapid means of communication, the early vegetables of the southern dis- 
tricts of France, as well as the oranges, lemons, and various other pro- 
ductions of the Algerian orchards, have appeared in the markets of the 
metropolis.^ 

^' It is well known that the cultivation of mushrooms in the vast quarries 
of Paris affords an abundant source of alimentary production, and a 
means of varying the appetizing flavor of our best culinary i^repara- 
tions. In this respect France is the most favored country for the growth 
of the delicioms and nutritious mushroom, which grows natiu-ally in 
propitious ground under the shadow of oaks and beeches, but which, up 
to the present time, has bid defiance to every system of artificial culture. 

'^ The extremely favorable influence of fresh vegetables has particularly 
manifested itself in the alimentary regime on board ship. It has been 
shown that sailors could maintain themselves in good health by making 
use of these productions to vary their diet, which is thus made more 
agreeable; and that, on the other hand, ships' crews deprived dimng 
long voyages of these precious sanitary resources suffered from special 
affections and i3articularly from scurvy." 

PRESERVED MEATS AND VEGETABLES. 

" Class 71 includes meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables i)reserved by various 
industrial processes. Preserved meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables are pre- 

^ In 1865 there were imported into France from Algeria : table fruits, 2,485,28R kilograms ; 
vegetables, dried, 1,866,958 kilograms ; green, 743,386 kilograms ; total, 5,095,602 kilo- 
grams. 



214 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

pared in foiu^ i^rineipal sections of the conntry. The first group has its 
centre in the town of Kantes, and furnishes pickled and preserved meat 
and fish and preserved vegetables. The second gToup has for its centre 
Bordeaux, and provides preserved fruit, vegetables, meat, and some fish. 
Excellent conserves of whole green olives are made in the department of 
Herault and Bouches-du-Ehone. The collection and preservation of truf- 
fles have extended over ten departments of France. The third group has 
its centre in Mans, and si)ecially treats vegetables and some few meats. 
Paris is the centre of the foiu^th group, and i)repares preserved vegeta- 
bles, mushrooms, and some meats. 

" The preparation of certain special products, comx^osed of truffles and 
fatted goose liver, has its i)rincipal seat in Strasbourg, though the trade 
extends all over the southern part of the empire. All the materials 
employed in these preparations are produced on the soil of France or are 
sui)i)lied by the coast fisheries. Their nomenclature is very extensive, 
and their prices vary considerably from year to year. Mechanical labor 
is very seldom required in the preparation, which simply consists in a 
series of processes, nearly all of which are accomplished by manipidation. 
The methods of preservation are numerous. The only one Avhich has 
been applied recently by the trade, besides pickling and concentration, 
is founded on the remarkable invention of Mr. Ai)pert. It consists of: 
1. Washing in boiling water the substances to be preserved: 2. Putting 
the ingredients into vessels soldered or hermetically fastened j 3. Expel- 
ling the air remaining in the closed vessel by boiling for a longer or 
shorter period, and at a degree varjdng according to the substance to be 
preserved. This unique system is diversified according to the natiu'e of 
the products. 

^'The theory of preserving substances by the French method, which has 
been propagated in all the countries of Europe and America, appears to 
be founded, according to the observations of M. Pasteur, on the destruc- 
tion, by exposure to a temperature of about 212c> Fahrenheit, of the 
vitahty of microphytic and microcosmic germs, which in a lining state 
engender alcoholic, acid, i)utrid, and other fermentations. A new descrip- 
tion of preserved food has latterly been introduced into France from 
South America; it is a concentrated extract of the meat of slaughtered 
animals, of which the grease and skins alone were pre^i-ously used in 
these countries. This extract can be preserved in boxes which are not 
hermetically sealed, on the condition that they contain no fat, which 
would cause rancidity, nor gelatine, which would occasion the develop- 
ment of moidd. It represents an amount of solid substance equal to 
30 times its weight in fresh meat. It is already largely consumed in Ger- 
many, and is largely supi:>lied to armies on service, and completes the 
quota of cereals and vegetables. 

'' The manual labor, the general exi:>enses, and the price of the vessel 
are equal, on an average, to 50 per cent, of the value of the preparation 
when ready for use. The workmen employed in these various works are 



SUGAR AND CONFECTIONERY. 215 

all emi)loyecl in workshops belonging to mannfactnrers. Some of them — 
for instance, those engaged in cooking and preserving — are paid monthly, 
and are occnpied permanently during the whole year; the others, such 
as the tinmen, work hy the piece. The last category includes the peelers 
and others, who are paid by the day and hired by the week or the month, 
according to the wants or the seasons of production. The preparations 
produced in France are sold in the great centres of population, to the 
navy, and, above all, in foreign countries. The makers in the provinces 
sell directly to the retail dealers, and in Paris either directly or by the 
medium of small wholesale dealers, but to foreign countries directly or 
through agents. 

^^ The production of preserved food has greatly developed since 1855, 
and this development is due to a more perfect knowledge of the best 
processes, on which depend the i^reservation of the alimentary sub- 
stances, to their better application, and, consequently, to greater confi- 
dence on the part of the consumer, leading to the increased sale of those 
articles which presented before but a doubtful chance of success." 

CLASS 72.— CONDIMENTS AND STIMULANTS; SUGAE AND 

CONFECTIONEEY. 

The exhibits in class 72 include sugar, confectionery, chocolate, liqueurs, 
condiments^ and stimulants. 

SUGAR. 

France, Prussia, Belgium, Brazil, Austria, and the United States were 
the chief exhibitors of sugar. Beet-root sugar was conspicuous from the 
central European countries. The ptoduction of this sugar is increasing. 
In Belgium it is now equal to three-quarters of the whole consumption of 
sugar. In 1850 and 1851 there were only 28 establishments for the maiiu- 
facture. In 1855-'5G there were 45, and in 1865-'66 the number had 
reached 100, and the i)roduction was 41,551,834 kilograms. 

The following extracts from the oificial catalogue show in detail the 
condition of the manufacture of sugar and other articles in this class in 
France. : 

^' Sugars include raw and refined sugar and molasses. Eaw cane sugar 
comes from the French and other colonies. The beet-root sugar is prin- 
cipally made in the deiiartments of the north of France. The price of raw 
sugar is about 61 francs to 70 francs the 100 kilograms, (2 hundred weight,) 
to which must be added the customs duty, namely, 42 francs per 100 kilo 
grams for beet-root and foreign sugar, and 37 francs 50 centimes for French 
colonial sugar. After the juice is extracted from the cane or from the 
beet root it is defecated, clarified, filtered, and bleached; it is afterwards ■ 
evaporated in various api)aratus, to cause it to crystallize, and after that 
it is purified more or less, according to the quality that is desired, and 
raw sugar and molasses are obtained. The raw sugar passes afterwards 
to the refinery, where it is converted into loaf or powdered white sugar. 



216 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

It is first dissolved in water, so as to form a rather tliin syrup, whicli is 
afterwards clarified, filtered, bleached, evaporated, crystallized, placed 
in moulds, and dried in stoves, to be delivered for consumption. It then 
sells for about 125 francs the 100 kilograms, duty included. 

"Sugar-making- is conducted in works directed by superintendents and 
foremen. The refiners buy the raw sugar either of the shippers, of the 
beet root sugar makers, or of commission agents. The loaf sugar is 
sold to wholesale and retail dealers, and they export it to England, 
Switzerland, America, Algeria, Italy, and Turkey. France produces 
200,000,000 kilograms of beet-root sugar, and imports about the same 
quantity from the French and foreign colonies. The consumption is 
about 250,000,000 kilograms. The difference is exported. 

" Since 1857 the manufacture and the refining have made great pro- 
gress, and this has had the effect of producing sugar at a lower price- 
The principal imi^rovements to be pointed out are, in sugar-making, the 
process of double carbonization, triple-action vacuum pans, and the 
employment of centrifugal machines ; and in refining, the improvements 
in the system of bleaching, the employment of centrifugal machines, and 
the diminution of the general expenses, by the concentration of work in 
large establishments." 

CHOCOLATE. 

" Chocolate-making has become an important trade ; it gives rise to the 
circulation of 30,000,000 francs annually, and is continually on the 
increase. In the year 1832 the quantity of cocoa consumed in France 
was little more than 528 tonsj in 1863 it had gradually increased to 
5,513 tons, which represented a production of 11,000 tons of chocolate, 
of an average value of 3 francs per kilogram. This increase was due to 
the employment of machinery, with the aid of which chocolate is manu- 
factured both more cheaply and of better quality. 

''The chocolate manufactories are situated in and near Paris and also 
in the departments of the ^NTord, Somme, Gironde, Loir et Ehone, and 
Pyrenees, and use both hydraulic and steam i)ower. As to the estab- 
lishments where the work is carried on by manual labor, they are now 
few in number, and are graduaUy approaching entire extinction. A great 
number of Avomen are emi^loyed in cleaning the cocoa and ^Trapping up 
the cakes of chocolate. They are seldom out of Avork. Both men and 
women are engaged in the factories of their emx^loyers, and the amount 
of their wages is estimated at about 5 per cent, of the whole value of 
the production. The home consumption absorbs nearly the whole quan- 
tity made. Only 188 tons were exported in 1803 j but this exportation 
would increase rapidly if the duties on the cocoa and sugar were retiu-ned 
on the exi)ort of the chocolate. French chocolate is in great repute in 
adjoining countries. 

" Tlie committee of admission have to observe that considerable pro- 
gress lias been made since 1855 in the manufacture, due principally to 



SUGAR AND CONFECTIONERY. 217 

the improvement of the machinery and plans employed, and to the 
special i^ains taken in the manii^ulation and the materials." 

CONFECTIONERY. 

"The productions of this section comprise: 1. Sweetmeats, containing 
almonds and liqueurs; 2. Acidulated and other drops, barley sugar, 
apple sugar, &c.; 3. Pastiles and lozenges of gum, burned almonds, 
fondants or cream sweetmeats, nougats, drops, bonbons, figures and fancy 
articles, comfits, and fruits preserved in sugar. 

"The principal places of production of confectionery are Paris, Mar- 
seilles, Bordeaux,Yerdun, Clermont, Ferrand, Lyons, Eouen, and Orleans. 
The raw materials are sugar, almonds, gums, perfumes, and fruit. The 
sugar, principally employed in the refined state, undergoes this x^repara- 
tion in France, and the average value of that employed is about 127 
francs the 100 kilograms, (2 hundred weight.) Within the last five or 
seven years sugar obtained by the improvements in the manufacture of 
beet root juice of the first quality, by means of the apparatus of Gail & 
Co., which has been employed in confectionery. This sugar, inferior to 
refined, is now worth about 117 francs the 100 kilograms. The almonds are 
in a large proportion also of French production, and gTown in the depart- 
ments of the Bouches du Ehone, Herault, Yaucluse, Lower Alps, and 
Avej-ron. The average price on the spot varies, according to quality? 
from 140 francs to 250 francs the 100 kilograms. Italy and Spain also 
have latterly contributed a considerable quantity. The price of these 
varies from 120 francs to 180 francs. 

" The gums come exclusively from Senegal and Alexandria. The prices 
of these at Marseilles or Bordeaux vary, according to the abundance of 
the crop, from 100 francs to 280 francs the 100 kilograms. The French 
confectioners generally make use of the most delicate perfumes, such as 
vanilla, the price of which varies from 40 francs to 100 francs, rose- 
water, orange-flowers, raspberries, maraschino, &c., to the exclusion of 
strong-flavored concentrated essences. All these perfumed waters are 
produced in the south of France, Yar, and the Maritime Alj^s. The 
price varies from 1 franc to 1 franc 50 centimes for good qualities. The 
most esteemed fruits are those of the centre of France and Auvergne, 
and the i)rice in the fresh, unprepared state varies, according to the 
season, from 20 francs to 100 francs the 100 kilograms. 

" The manufacture of the various i)roducts of confectionery was carried 
on entirely by hand until 1845. Since that time apparatus of various 
kinds, propelled and heated by steam, have successively replaced that 
primitive method, which is rapidly disappearing. Men alone are or can 
be employed in this work, but many i)reparatory operations — long, but 
not fatiguing — such as the shelling and blanching of almonds, the 
preparation of fruit and gum, and i^acking, are reserved for women, who 
in number equal, if they do not suri)ass, that of the men. In Paris the 
wages vary with the imx3ortance of the work and the skill of the work- 



218 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

men, from 35 centimes to 65 centimes per hour, and in the case of women 
from 15 centimes to 25 centimes. The labor is estimated to cost about 
one-eighth of the vahie of the whole production. The wholesale trade 
in confectionery amounts to about 40,000,000 francs per annum, of which 
three-fourths are reiwesented by sweetmeats and one-fourth by preserved 
fruits, jellies and jams. Although held in high esteem abroad, these 
productions are only exported to a very small extent as compared with 
the home consumption; but the export trade would rapidly assume 
important proportions if, as in the case of refined sugar, the consumer's 
tax on sugar were refunded on the export of the goods." 

LIQUEURS. 

''Paris, Bordeaux, Marseilles, Isere, and, to a less extent, all the great 
centres of population, possess distilleries. The principal materials 
emi^loyed in this industry are wine spirit, refined sugar, plants, and 
aromatic substances. The spirit is principally obtained from Langue- 
doc, and the price varies greatly with the season. In December, 1866, 
it was worth 75 francs the hectolitre, (22 J gallons,) exclusive of duty. 
The refined sugar is obtained from Paris, Marseilles, and Nantes, at 
rates varying from 127 francs to 130 francs the 100 kilograms. The 
aromatic plants are grown in the environs of Lyons. and Grenoble, 
and their prices varies from 50 francs to 300 francs the 100 kilograms. 
The aromatic substances are vanilla, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg, and 
the prices range between 50 francs and 80 francs the kilogram. The 
manufacture is accomplished by distillation, with the aid of steam and 
a special apparatus, more or less perfect, the alembic being the niodel on 
which all are based. 

''The workmen are always engaged in the establishments of their 
employer, and their wages range from 4 francs to 6 francs per day. The 
greater portion of the liqueurs made are for home consumption ; still this 
trade gives rise to an important export, in spite of the large augmenta- 
tion of price, caused principally by the duty on the consumption of 
spirits and sugar. The trade is so divided and disseminated that it is 
difficult to give the precise amount of the annual production 5 but taking 
the statistics respecting the transformation of spirits into liqueurs, as 
given by authority, we arrive at a i)roximate estimate of 45,000,000 
francs." 

CONDIjMENTS and STIMULANTS. 

"The w^hite wines of the Loire and of the Charente are those which 
give the best vinegar. The price varies with the season, from 5 francs 
to 20 francs per hectolitre. The preparation consists essentially in set- 
ting in action the principles of fermentation in the Avine, which, to that 
end, is exposed to a given lieat in reservoirs prepared for the ])urpose. 
For some time the use of steam for the heating, and of machinery for 
transferring the liquor from one vessel to another, has reduced the cost 



FERMENTED DRINKS. 219 

of tlie manual labors by two-tbirds. Lastly, tbe tlieories of Mr. Pasteur 
on fermentation bave tbrown ligbt u})on many questions wbicb were 
beretofore obscure. Tbe amount of tbe annual production of vinegar in 
France is about 1,500,000 bectolitres, wbicb at tbe average rate of 20 
francs gives a money value of 30,000,000 francs. 

"Mustard seed is cultivated in many departments, and specially in 
tbe Kord, Pas-de-Oalais, tbe Bas Ebin, and tbe Obarente. Tbe annual 
produce is 650 tons, wortb 150,000 francs. Triturated in special mills, 
mixed witb \dnegar, and flavored witb various condiments, it is deliv- 
ered to tbe trade ready for tbe table. Tbe quantity i)roduced is about 
3,000 tons, of tbe total value of 2,000,000 francs. 

"Fruits and vegetables preserved in vinegar, Englisb sauces, capers, 
&c., make up a total of about 3,000 tons, and a value of 4,000,000 francs." 

" Spices are all imx:)orted from America, India, and Cbina, and make 
up a total of 4,250,000 francs. 

"Tbe various countries wbicb supply France witb coffee, tbe use of 
wbicb bas so largely extended, are Brazil, tbe West Indies, India, and 
Eg;^T^t. Tbe qualities vary extremely, but of all kinds known tbat wbicb 
is cultivated in Arabia, and known by tbe name of Mocba, is decidedly 
tbe finest. Tbe prices of coffee range from 2 francs to 3 francs 50 cen- 
times, according to tbe country of production. Tbe value of tbe imports 
in 1804 reacbed 80,000,000 francs. 

"Tbe continental blockade rendered it necessary to find some sub- 
stitute for coffee, and bence resulted tbe preparation of cbiccory, wbicb, 
altbougb possessing none of tbe qualities of coffee, bas lield its place to 
tbe present time, and even progresses in demand, on account of its low 
price and tbe similarity in color between it and coffee. Tbe roots of tbe 
cbiccory plant, cultivated specially in tbe nortli of France, and in tbe 
Haut and Bas Ebin, are first roasted, and tben, after baving been prop- 
erly dried in a stove, are again roasted and reduced to powder. Tbese 
operations are carried on in well organized establisbments on a large 
scale. Tbe green roots are wortb from 4 francs 50 centimes to 5 francs 
tbe 100 kilograms. Sliced and dried, tbey fetcb 18 francs to 24 francs. 
The powder, wben prepared, is wortb 40 francs to 50 francs tbe 100 kilo- 
grams, and in grain from 50 francs to 60 francs. Tbe annual produce 
may be estimated at 7,000 tons, of tbe value of 3,500,000 francs to 
4,000,000 francs. 

"Finally, tbe productions wbicb form tbe subject of tbe preceding enu- 
meration contribute to tbe annual industry of France to tbe following 
extent : 

"1. Sugar, 400,000,000 francs 5 2. Confectionery, 40,000,000 francs ; 3. 
Cbocolate, 30,000,000 francs ; 4. Liqueurs, 45,000,000 francs ; 5. Condi- 
ments and stimulants, 127,000,000 francs. Total, 642,000,000 francs." 

CLASS 73.— FERMENTED DEINKS. 
In class 73 — fermented drinks, wines, spirits, «&c. — tbere was a very 
extensive collection from every quarter of tbe world. Tbe importance 



220 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

of tlie department may be inferred from the fact tliat tliere were 7,700 
exhibitors and 22,000 samples shown. France, with her splendid and 
delicate wines, maintained her known supremacy in this manufacture. 
The principal i^articulars of the trade in France, furnished from of&cial 
sources, are given below. 

The German Avines, manufactured according to the highest principles 
of the art, and the produce of wines that are raised with a care which 
is not bestowed on any other article of human consumption, ranked very 
high. The best Ehine wines are white; but two celebrated brands, 
Assmannshausen and Stein wein, are red, and were liberally represented. 
Johannisberger maintained its i)osition as the king of German wines. 
It is not, however, sold in the market, except in bad years, when the 
lirincely proprietor does not care to retain the wine. There is a large 
district called Johannisberg, but the vines are cultivated in the usual 
way, while at Schloss Johannisberg the most unremitting attention, 
utterly regardless of cost, is paid to them. The district, however, has a 
good exposure, and very often produces a superior wine. 

Of the wines of Spain, Portugal, Austria, and Hungary it is imi)ossi- 
ble to speak. They were displayed in infinite variety, and of qualities, 
it may be presumed, that represented the highest kind of production. It 
was stated, however, by competent judges, that no appreciable advance 
has of late years been made in the manufacture of wine. A practical 
method has, nevertheless, been discovered by which undue fermentation is 
avoided in the case of wines intended for exportation. The wine is sub- 
jected to 60° Centigrade of heat. The exi)osure only continues for a few 
moments, but the heat effectually destroys all germs of further fermen- 
tation, without, it is claimed, injuring the wine. 

The wines and beers exhibited from the United States are noticed in 
the Eeport on the United States section. 

The products shown in this class are divided into four series : 

1. Wine of aU kinds ; 2. Alcohol, eau-de-vie, and their derivatives, 
kirsch, bitters, &c.; 3. Cider ; 4. Beer. 



'' Viticultural production is one of the most important in French agri- 
culture. It extends to over 2,287,821 hectares, ^ situated in 81 depart- 
ments, the yield being, on an average, 50,000,000 hectolitres, ^ of a total 
value to the producers of 750,000,000 francs. In 1865 the quantity 
reached 68,942,931 hectoUtres, and considering the development that has 
taken place during the last few years, it is certain, that, unless checked 
by the grape disease, the oidium, the amount of 50,000,000 hectolitres 
will generally be exceeded. 

^ '• Vineyard property is excessively subdivided. It is held by no less than 
2,200,000 proprietors, so that each property, on an average, scarcely 

' A hectare is nearly equivalent to two and a half acres English. 
2 A hectolitre is equal to 22^ gallons English. 



FERMENTED DRINKS. 221 

exceeds one hectare. The cost of cultivation varies considerably, accord- 
ing to the season and the rate of wages in the various districts of France. 
They range from 150 francs to 570 francs per hectare, which give for the 
rate of wages from 1 franc 90 centimes to 4 francs, and even 5 francs per 
day. The trade in wine is, of course, a very considerable one. The city 
of Paris alone consumes annually about 3,600,000 hectolitres 5 that is to 
say, an average of 183 litres (a litre is rather more than If pint) per 
head for each inhabitant, and this consumption would certainly go on 
increasing largely if it were not impeded by the present system of taxes, 
and by their heavy rates. The city or octroi duties, for instance, exceed 
in amount the value of the greater part of the wine on which they are 
placed. Exportation increases every year under the influence of the new 
treaty of commerce. In the year 1866 the exi)orts amounted to 3,194,104 
hectolitres, of the value of 308,502,000 francs, while in 1851 the total 
value did not exceed 195,923,000 francs. Thus, in five years, there has 
been an increase to the extent of 60 per cent. The value of the exi)orts 
of spirits and liqueurs amounted in 1866 to 93,970,000 francs, while in 
1861 it had not reached over 52,966,000 francs. It had therefore increased 
to the extent of 80 per cent, in the same period. The total amount of 
the exports of wine and spirits in 1866 was then 402,472,000 francs. In 
1866 the prices were far below those of 1865. This reduction of price, 
combined with the changes introduced in the English tariff, which make 
the duty on wine introduced in bottle the same as that imported in the 
wood, has increased the exports of wine from France to England from 
94,385 hectolitres to 205,992 hectolitres ; that is to say, an augmentation 
of 120 x)er cent, between 1865 and 1866, and it is hoped that this con- 
sumption will overcome the obstacles which arise out of the organiza- 
tion of trade in England and the great number of local taxes. 

'' Sixty-five departments have taken part* in the Exhibition of 1867; 
they are represented by 600 exhibitors. Unfortunately, the Exhibition of 
the great growths of the Bordelais is far from being complete. As to 
Burgundy, the chamber of commerce and the agricultural societies and 
committees have zealously competed in the organization of a most 
remarkable exhibition. Yarious processes have been proposed and 
exijerimented on recently with the view to the improvement and man- 
agement of the fermentation of wine, and particularly to make it capa- 
ble of bearing changes of temperature, and more especially long sea 
voyages ; but the most important improvement to be noticed is certamly 
that of an illustrious chemist, Mr. Pasteur, who has shown that the 
gTcater i)art of the maladies in wines arise from the development of 
fermentation from invisible vegetable growths, the germs of which are 
annihilated when the wine is exposed in closed vessels to a temperature 
of 60 degrees Centigrade for only a few minutes. Munberless experi- 
ments have confirmed the truth of this discovery, and have proved at 
the same time that this operation does not injure the flavor of the 
wine, but, on the contrary, very often improves it. 



222 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

^'The production of alcohol lias averaged, during tlie last ten years, 
1,124,872 hectolitres, but the increase has latterly been very considerable. 
Thus, the season of 1863-4 produced 1,278,192 hectolitres j in 1864-5, 
1,305,905 J in 1865-6, 1,789,474, which is divided as follows: Distillation 
of wine, 1,200,000 hectolitres, giving in alcohol 1,010,166 hectolitres 5 
distillation of beet-root, 283,022 hectolitres; distillation of molasses, 
307,409 hectolitres J distillation of farinaceous substances, 79,648 hec- 
tolitres; distillation of lees and fruits, 53,232 hectohtres; and various 
substances, 55,997 hectolitres. Total, 1,789,474 hectolitres." 

CIDER AND BEER. 

''The average annual production of cider during the past ten years has 
been 9,057,570 hectolitres; in 1866 it was 11,323,745 hectolitres, and it 
increases every year. The railways contribute largely to this result by 
transporting rapidly the cider apples from the place of production to the 
centres of consumption. The consequence is that the price of ajDples 
has been augmented, and that the farmers find it worth their while to 
extend their plantations. The consumption of cider is also larger than 
it was, because in many districts where nothing but Avater was drank 
they now make use of cider or beer. The best cider in France is made 
in the neighborhood of Calvados and La Manche, but it is desirable that 
the proprietors should bestow the same amount of care upon the culti- 
vation and manufacture as the wine growers. 

''We have previously said that the consumi)tion of beer increases 
considerably in several parts of France where its use was very restricted 
a few years since. In other localities its use extends even where wine or 
cider is the common drink of the country. The manufacture has made 
great progress, and we no longer go to Germany or to England for hght, 
agreeable, and wholesome beer. This development of the brewing trade 
has produced a similar progress in the cultivation of hops in the north- 
ern and eastern departments, and the Yosges and Alsace. At the pres- 
ent time French hops are in as great demand as the best Bavarian hops, 
and they might pass for them in common. 

" These particulars, although very incomplete, show the importance of 
the trade in the industry of fermented drinks in France, not only on 
account of the number of persons engaged or interested in the culture 
of the wine, but also as regards the capital engaged in the production, 
home consumption, and export.'' 



GROUP YIII. 

LIVE STOCK AND SPECIMENS OF AGRICULTURAL 

BUILDINGS. 

Class 74. Farm Buildings and Agricultural Works.— Class 75. Horses, Asses, 
Mules.— Class 76. Bulls, Buffaloes, &c.— Class 77. Sheep, Goats.— Class 78. 
Pigs, RABBtrs. — Class 79. Poultry. — Class 80. Sporting Dogs and Watch 
Dogs.— Class 81. Useful Insects. — Class 82. Fish, Crustacea, and Mollusca. 

All tlie classes of Group YIII Avere represented at Billancourt by a eertain 
number of productions which Avere reneAved every fortnight and diA^ded 
into fourteen competitive exhibitions. The exhibition Avas divided as 
folloAvs : 

EXHIBITION OF AGEICULTUEAL INSTEUMENTS. 

APRIL. 

Firstfortniglit. — Ploughs of all kinds, hydraulic machines, steam engines. 
Second fortnight. — Steam ploughs, harroAvs, extirpating rollers, scarifica- 
tors, pugmills, and apparatus for making drain-pipes. 

MAY. 

First fortnight. — DriUs for seed and manures, hemp and flax strip- 
pers, A^ehicles, harness, AA^eighing machines, churns, and dairy utensils. 
Second fortnight. — MoAAing machines, AvinnoAving machines, rakes, hay- 
making apparatus, and apparatus for tying and the preserA^ation of hay. 

JUNE. 

First fortnight. — Competition in farriery and examination of specimens 
of rural establishments. Second fortnight. — Chaff and root cutters, horse 
hoes, &c., mills. 

JULY. 

Fh'st fortnight. — ^Aj^paratus for clipping various domestic animals. 
Second fortnight. — Eeaping machine and other harvesting apparatus. 

AUGUST. 

First fortnight. — Threshing machines and other apparatus for the 
cleaning and i)reser\"ation of gTain, Second fortnight. — Portable ovens, 
apparatus for cooking vegetables, A\^ashing linen, and manufacturing 
manures. 

SEPTEMBER AND OCTOBER. 

Examination of specimens of various agricultural industries. 



224 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

AOTMALS. 
APRIL. 

First fortnight. — Breeding sheep. Second fortnight. — Fat anbnals. 

MAY. 

First fortnight. — Dairy cattle; breeders. Second fortnight. — Sheep for 
wool; breeders. 

JUNE. 

First fortnight. — Horses and other animals for draught. Second fort- 
night. — Poultry and small animals. 

JULY. 

First fortnight. — Cattle for labor; breeders. Second fortnight. — Sad- 
dle horses, hunters, carriage horses, ponies, «&c. 

AUGUST. 

First fortnight. — Dogs. Second fortnight. — ^Draught oxen. 

SEPTEMBER. 

First fortnight.'^Fig^, breeders. Second fortnight. — Asses, mules, &c. 

OCTOBER. 

First fortnight. — Fat animals. Second fortnight. — Animals acclima- 
tized or capable of being so. 



GROUP IX. 

LIVE PRODUCE AND SPECIMENS OF HORTICUL- 
TURAL WORKS. 

Class 83. Glass Houses and Apparatus.— Class 84. Flowers and Ornamental 
Plants. — Class 85. Vegetables. — Class 86. Fruit Trees.— Class 87. Seeds and 
Saplings of Forest Trees.— Class 88. Hot-house Plants. 

CLASS 84: TO 88.— FLOWEES AXD OE^AMEXTAL PLANTS. 

These classes were represented at tlie Exliibitioii in the French section 
by products renewed every fortnight, and gave rise to fonrteen series of 
prize competitions. A special catalogne was published, and only a sum- 
mary of the proceedings can be given here. 

RESU3IE OF THE FOURTEEN COMPETITIVE SERIES. 

f First Series, from April 1 to 14, 1807.^1 

Frincipal exMbition. — Camehas in flower. 

Minor exliibitions. — iSTew plants reared from the seed, hot-house plants, 
(orchids, bromelia, ferns.) Greenhouse and conservatory plants, (erica, 
acacias and mimosa, herbaceous ferns, amaryllis, stocks, cinerarias, 
Chinese primrose, daphnes, cyclamens, mignonette.) Ligneous plants for 
the open air, (holly, magnolia grandiflora, yucca, ivy.) Bulbous plants, 
(hyacinths, tulips, saffron.) Forced shrubs, (lilacs, rose trees, and others.) 
Fruit and vegetables, (pine-api)les, early fruits, fruits of 18GG, &c.) Fruit 
trees pruned and trained, (pear, peach, cherry, plum, and apricot trees, 
vines,) standard fruit trees. 

Second series, (from April 14 to 30, 1867. y) 

Principal exMUtion. — Conifers. 

Minor exMhition. — Hothouse x)lants, (orchids, cacti, lycopodium, sela- 
ginella, &c.) Plants grown in heated beds, (agave, aloe, Bonaparteoe, 
dasylirion, litzaea, yucca, rhododendrons, epacris, erica, cinerarias.) Herb- 
aceous plants, grown in the open ground, (hyacinths, pansies, primroses, 
stocks, &c.) Ligneous i)lants, grown in the open ground, (magnolias, 
rose trees, &c.) Early vegetables. 

Third series, (from May 1 to 14, 1867.^1 

Principal exMhition. — Azalea indica, rhododendron arboreum. 

Minor exhihitions. — ]^ew plants of all kinds. Hothouse plants. and 
plants growm in heated beds, (orchids, &c.) Plants cultivated for the 
decoration of apartments. Greenhouse bulbous infants, (ixia, sparaxis.) 
15 u E 



226 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Plants of all kinds grown in the open gronncl, (peonies, rose trees, clematis, 
Gessner tnlips, pansies, anricul?e, mignonette, gladiolus, &c.) Vege- 
tables and fruit, (vegetables in season, early vegetables, pine apples, &c.) 

Fourth series, (from May 15 to 30, 1867.^ 

Principal exMhition. — Palms and cycade?e. 

Minor exMbitions. — Hotliouse plants, (orcliids, iscara.) Plants grown 
in lieated beds and conservatories, (azaleas, calceolarias, Himalaya rhodo- 
dendrons, &c.) Ligneous plants, grown in the open ground, (clematis, 
rose trees, &c.) Herbaceous plants, grown in the open ground, (peonies, 
ranunculuses, anemones, daisies, and others.) Vegetables and forced 
fruit, (grapes, &c.) 

Fifth series, (from June 1 to 14, 1867.^1 

Principal exhihition. — Orchids and pelargonium in iiower. 

Minor exh ih itions. — Hothouse plants, (caladimn bulbosum, &c. ) Green- 
house plants, (calceolarias, verbenas, &c.) Herbaceous plants, grown in 
the open ground, (rhododendrons, azaleas, kalmia, rose trees, &c.) Vege- 
tables and forced fruit, (melons, &c.) 

Sixth series, (from June 15 to 30, 1867 J 

Principal exhihition. — Koses and pandange. 

Minor exhibitions. — Pelargonium in flower. Hothouse plants, (orchids, 
Theophrasta, cla^ija, maranta, calathea, phrynium, bananas, begonias.) 
Plants grown in heated beds and conservatories, (orange trees, lemon 
trees, verbenas, calceolarias.) Herbaceous plants, grown in the open 
ground, (larkspiu^s, irises, 10-week stocks, indigenous orchids, Alpine 
plants, peonies, &c.) Vegetables in season. Exotic and indigenous 
fruits, (bananas, cherries, strawberries.) 

Seventh series, (from July 1 to 14, 1867. ^l 

Principal exhihition. — Pelargonium zonale and tree ferns. 

Minor exhihition. — Hothouse plants, (exotic, usefid, and officinal plants, 
orchids, pitcher plants, gloxinia, caladium bulbosum.) Plants grown in 
heated beds, (i^etunias, rochea, crassula, saracenia amaryllis, lilium 
auratum.) Plants grown in the open ground, (larkspurs, mignonette, 
climbing roses, roses, &c.) Vegetables in season, (mushrooms and others.) 
Fruit, (cherries, strawberries, &c.) 

Fiyht^i series, (from July 15 to 31, 1867.; 

Principal exhihition.— Vhiks and hothouse plants. 

Minor exhihitions. — Hothouse plants, (exotic fruit trees, gloxinia.) 
Greenhouse phmts, (lantana, petunia.) Herbaceous plants, grown in the 
open ground, (officinal plants, phlox, penstemon, shot, climbing roses, 
gladiolus, larkspurs, phlox Drummondii, &c.) Ligneous plants, for decor- 
ation, (hortensias, &c.) Fruit bushes, (stone fruits, berries, melons. 
Vegetables in season. 



FLOWERS AND OENAMENTAL PLANTS. 227 



Mnfh series^ (from August 1 to 14, ISGT.y' 

Frinclpal exliibition. — Fuclisias aud gladiolus. 

Minor exhibitions. — Exotic climbing plants, (passion-flowers and others.) 
Greenhouse plants, (heliotropes, cape heaths.) Plants grown in the 
open ground, (dahlias, pinks, climbing roses, phlox decussata, lilies, 
zinnia, lobelia, nastiutiums, hortensias, «&c.) Stone and other fruit, 
(berries, grapes, peaches.) Vegetables in season. 

Tenili series^ (from August 15 to 31, 1SQ7.J 

Frinciiml exhibitio ??.— Aroides. 

Minor exliibition. — Hothouse plants, (orchids, Gesnera, achimenes, 
nagelia, sinningia.) Greenhouse and conservatory plants, (fuchsias, 
erythrina, pelargonium zonale and pelargonium inguinans, plants for 
hanging baskets.) Perennial plants grown in the open ground, (dahlias, 
climbing roses, penstemon, phlox, pinks, &c.) Annuals, (china asters, 
balsams, zinnia, and others.) Bulbous plants, (lilies, gladiolus.) Ligneous 
plants, grown in the open ground. Aquatic plants. Vegetables in 
season, (melons and others.) Fruit bushes and trees, (fruits with pips 
and with stones, peaches, grapes, figs.) 

Eleventh series^ (from September 1 to 11, 1807.^ 

Fr incipal exli ib it ion. — Dahlias. 

Minor exhibitions. — Hothouse plants, (dragon trees, croton, allamandar) 
Greenhouse plants, (fuchsias, veronicas, pelargonium zonale and pelar- 
gonium inguinans.) Plants grown in the open ground, (dianthus sinensis 
and dianthus HedeA\igii, china asters, balsams, and others.) Ligneous 
plants grown in the open ground., ,(rose trees.) Bulbous plants, (gladiolus 
and others.) Vegetables in season. Fruits with x^ips and stones, (peaches, 
grai3es, figs, pine-apples.) Trees with caducous leaves. 

Twelfth series^ (from September 15 to 30, 1807.J 

Fri nclpal exh ibition. — Araliacese. 

Minor exhibitions. — Hothouse plants, (canna, solanum, ficus, hibiscus, 
musa, and others.) Greenhouse plants, (fuchsias, pelargonium zonale 
and pelargonium inguinans.) Plants grown in the oi^en ground, (gra- 
mineous plants, dahlias, chrysanthemums, asters, gladiolus. Ligneous 
plants, (roses, bamboos.) Annuals of various kinds. Vegetables in 
season. 

Fruit, (grapes, fruits with pips, Avith stones, cucurbitace?e, strawber 
ries.) 

Thirteenth series, (from October 1 to 11, 18o7.^ 

Frincipcd exhibition. — Fruits of aU kinds, and Indian chrysanthemums. 

2Iinor exhibitions. — Hothouse plants, (orchids and others.) Vegeta- 
bles in season, (potatoes, cabbages, mushrooms, Indian potatoes, water- 
melons.) 



228 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 



Fourteenth series, (from October 15 to 30, 1867 J 

Principal exMhition. — Vegetables of all kinds. 

Minor exliihitions. — Ligneous plants grown in tlie open ground. Vari- 
ous systems of multiplication for fruit trees, forest plantations, clirysan- 
tliemums, and other x)lants. 

Special sliows of bouquets and natural flowers. 



GROUP X. 

ARTICLES EXHIBITED WITH THE SPECIAL 
OBJECT OF IMPROVING THE PHYSICAL AND 
MORAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 

Class 89. Apparatus and Methods Used in the Instruction of Children.— Class 
90. Libraries and Apparatus Used in the Instruction of Adults at Home, in 
THE Work-shops, or in Schools and Colleges. — Class 9i. Furniture, Cloth- 
ing, AND Food from all sources, Remarkable for Useful Qualities, combined 
with Cheapness.— Class 92. Specimens of the Clothjng Worn by the People 
of Different Countries. — Class 93. Examples of Dwellings characterized 
BY Cheapness comhtned with the Conditions Necessary for Health and Com- 
fort.— Class 94. Articles OF all kinds Manufactured by Working Masters.— 
Class 95. Instruments and Processes peculiar to Working Masters. 

The articles contained in Group X were of a very miscellaueons char- 
acter, and in fact were borrowed from twenty-one of the preceding- 
classes, to be massed here. 

The most interesting subjects for study were the school appliances, 
and the cheap houses for Avorlvmen. Germany, Switzerland, and the 
United States excelled in the former Exhibition not only the machinery 
of education, but the school-houses themselves. In the matter of eco- 
nomical cottages for laborers there were many competitors. 

The Emperor was among the number, and obtained the principal prize, 
which was handed to him by the Prince Imx^erial, the i)resident of the 
commission, on the day of the distribution of rewards. 

CLASSES 89 AND 90.— APPAEATUS AND METHODS USED IN 

INSTEUCTION. 

^' Among the institutions Avhich concur for the physical and moral im- 
provements of the working classes, the Imperial Commission has i)laced 
in the first rank the educational estabhshments which, from the creches 
(asylums where the infants of female operatives are taken care of dur- 
ing the day) to the special schools, develop in the child and the youth, 
the apprentice, and the workman, the qualities of intelligence and char- 
acter, and initiate them in that theoretical and practical knowledge 
which wiU guide them in all the phases of their existence, and render 
them fitted for any position in life." 

The following observations on education in France were drawn up by 
M. Charles Eobert, one of the vice-presidents of the united juries of 
Group X ; M. Marguerin, member of the committee of admission of class 
89 ; M. Ph. Pompee, vice-president of class 90 j M. Barbier, member and 
delegate of class 89, was added to the commission. The report was 



230 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

translated for the English official catalogue, from which it is here repro- 
dnced. 

^'The dnty of collecting and classifying all the articles which could pro- 
perly be shown as illustrating our public system of education, has been 
confided to the committees of classes 89 and 90. The first was designed 
for the admission of all the works adapted for the education of children 
from their birth to the time when, their intelligences being developed, 
they could either continue their special studies or enter immediately into 
apprenticeship for the callings for which they were ultimately intended. 

'^ The committee of class 90 is charged with the investigation of all those 
institutions which tend either to recover lost time, to perfect the educa- 
tion already received in the primary schools, or to afford new acquire- 
ments to youth or adults, which would permit them at a future period 
to bring their works to the greatest perfection of which man's creations 
are capable. But, if the institutions for teaching may be theoretically 
divided into sections, as we have just done, they cannot be practically 
so separated. The education of man is a thing complete in itself, w^hich, 
though it has its degrees, cannot, without great inconyenience, be sub- 
jected to change of direction, i:>roceeding, or method. Thus, no sooner 
had the united committee of the two classes commenced this work, than 
it was found how difficult it was to determine to which class appertained 
certain Exhibitors who had productions interesting both to the adult 
classes and children's schools, and sometimes to every description of 
scholastic institutions. An understanding between them being indis- 
pensable, a methodical and reasonable distribution of their respective 
duties was arranged by a mixed commission; and while at the same 
time they each separately preserved their own individuality, the two 
committees of admission combined their efforts so as to give to this part 
of the Exhibition the necessary unity and completeness. It is also for 
this express purpose that this preface has been compiled in common by 
the members of the two classes. 

^^ Before entering into details concerning the articles exhibited, we can- 
not help stating that the space allotted for the two classes 89 and 90 has 
been quite insufficient to present its whole development, or to give an 
adequate idea of the details and ensemble of our vast system of public 
instruction. However, we feel convinced that incomplete as this Exhi- 
tion is, it will prove to our own countrymen and to foreigners that pub- 
lic instruction has made in the last few years immense progress in France, 
thanks to a liberal and prolific impulse ; and that our public and private 
establisliments are worthy of a nation so enlightened and advanced as 
ours proves herself in all the branches of human activity. 

'^ For the first time, at the Universal Exhibition of London in 18G2, a 
particular class was created to receive the school requisites, works, and 
materials, but this was limited to infant schools and special schools for 
drawing. 

'' Tlie French Exhibition of 1807, however, embraces, on a much more 



EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 231 

comprelieusiye scale, all kinds of eclucatioii — tliat of adults as well as of 
cliildren, tlieir professional education as well as teclinical education; and, 
acting- up to its universal character, presents for examination the various 
evidences of the intellectual activity of the comitry. Therefore, whereas 
the Exhibition of London only numbered 180 exhibitors in this class, 
that of Paris possesses as many as 500 exhibitors, which, however, is 
less than half the number Avho applied to the Imperial Commission for 
admission. 

'' A rapid i)rogress has been realized during the last five years, and a 
still more marked advance is in process of realization, to bear fruit in 
no very distant futiu'e. These are the results i^roved by facts in the 
exhibition of classes 89 and 90. 

" I. The hygienic condition of school buildings, the judicious disposi- 
tion of the interior, the arrangement and installation of the whole, are 
subjects of vital importance in educational matters. These requirements 
are now better understood and more ably carried into effect. The new 
schools are better distributed, besides affording the scholars a more ami)le 
supply of air, light, and space. A large number of old buildings have 
been greatly improved in this respect, and arranged in accordance with 
this principle. The impetus has been given, and this transformation 
will gradually be extended to the smallest and most insignificant vil- 
lages. 

'' II. The institution of creches, or infant asylums, which has been tried 
for some time, is now regularly organized, and is showing a progressive 
development. It is the same A^itli the salles dhisile, (infant schools,) 
which are under an august and charitable patronage. France numbers 
3,572 i)ublic infant schools ; 264 were founded between 18G3 and 1865, 
and during the same period the inmates of these schools were augmented 
by 31,912 children. In the rapidly increasing training schools for the 
education of teachers, school-mistresses are taught the use of those gym- 
nastic exercises and games Avhich make these dwelling places of youth 
more gay and wholesome to the little inmates. 

'■'- III. The progress in the management of the elementary schools is still 
more marked in every way. From 1863 to 1865 the number of communes 
possessing no school was reduced from 818 to 694 5 938 new schools have 
been founded, and the scholars, which now number 4,436,470, have been 
augmented by 100,102 children. The communal or free schools for guis 
and boys amounted in 1865 to 69,699 j and they are also attended more 
regidarly, and are less frequently abandoned by the pupils, after their first 
communion. The institution of cantonal examinations, and prizes and 
primary instruction certificates, have had a most happy and siu^msing 
influence. On tlie other hand, the instruction has not remained station- 
ary, having considerably extended, inasmuch as difierent branches of 
study, which -were i)reviously optional, have now become obligatory 5 it 
is also much improved by a more intelligent direction ; agriculture and 
horticulture are being taught Avitli eminently satisfactory results ; in a 



232 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

word, tlie general imi^roving tendency is to make primary instruction a 
broad, solid basis, on ttMcIi may rest the education of adults — special, 
secondary, and technical — in accordance ^itli the mental capability and 
requirements and the fiitiu-e career of the students. Besides these 
improvements, the position of the instructors is much improved ; they 
are better renmnerated for their services ; their interests are i)rotected ; 
elevated in the eyes of the popidation by public recognition of their 
services, and allowed to participate in all honorary distinctions. They 
are thus more than ever encouraged to devote themselves to the diffu- 
sion of public instruction, which is the special requirement of the times 
and the sincere wish of the entire French population. The imi)rove- 
ments have been attained principally by boys' schools ; with the girls' 
schools the results have been less marked ; but, happily, the ne^' law on 
female education, the project for which is now before the legislative body 
for approval, Avill soon give an impulse in the right direction. An evi- 
dent and progressive improvement in the science of training teachers, 
and in the methods and ways of teaching, is an unmistakeable sign of 
the vital interest that this question of education excites in the country. 
Proofs of this are everywhere shown in the French Exhibition of 1867. 

"lY. The science of teaching and scholastic training, which only can be 
an efficient auxiliary to national education when it is thoroughly imbued 
with tlie immutable principles of religion and morality', and this truth is 
represented by works worthy of French literature. It is not only taught 
in all the i^rimary normal schools, but the taste for the study of this 
science is kept ui) among the schoolmasters by annual conferences — a 
system which is rapidly becoming a part of oiu^ scholastic education. 
The improvement in the methods and plans of instruction are manifest 
ever since the English Exhibition of 1862. The elementary books and 
treatises for the teaching of reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, his- 
tory, geographj^, and drawing, have gained much in simplicity and clear- 
ness ; they are more practical 5 they are more imx)ressed with the end 
they have in view, while they spare the child both time and trouble. 
Their iirogTCSS may be appreciated by the study of the productions of 
the pui>ils. The needlework done by little girls shoAvs that Avorks of a 
fancifid and friAolous kind have giA^en i)lace to those of utility and family 
necessity. 

" Y. The proAince of education is to study the physical growth of chil- 
dren. To the ordinary gymnastic games must be added rational gym- 
nastics, AAiiich may rule and complete the first. The apparatus exhibited 
shoAA^ that there are plenty of means for physical education, but it is often 
impossible to organize them practically, while French habits make it more 
difficult here than elsewhere. If gymnastic exercises have not yet man- 
aged to bring together the youthful population Avith the view of public 
recreation, singing has had the advantage of so doing. 

" The neAv choral societies Avhich are daily organized, the Orpheonic 
gatherings Avhich take i)lace periodically, the cheap musical publications 



EDUCATION m FRANCE. 233 

tliat liave spread widely, prove that music is fully establislied in the 
tastes aud habits of the people. The most distiugiiished French com- 
posers are now engaged for the Ori3heons, and classical music begins to 
arrest the pubhc attention. The Central Patronage Committee of the 
French Orpheons, recently inaugurated, will forward this gTeat move- 
ment, and give it encouragement and impulse. The Exhibition gives 
eA^dence of the considerable development given to singing during the 
last few years. 

'' yi. The French educational system would not be in accordance with 
the charitable habits of our country if it did not endeavor to ameliorate 
the condition of those unfortunate beings whose infirmities have long 
condemned them to loneliness. The Exhibition show^s us many recent 
improvements in the contrivances for educating the blind and the deaf 
and dumb. By rendering study less irksome, these contrivances facili- 
tate their communication with the world, and the possibility of emiiloy- 
ing talents which would otherwise be rendered useless. The endeavor 
to educate the deaf and dumb in ordinary schools is too recent yet for 
the result of the trial to be ap|)reciated ,• the future will show what is to 
be expected from it. 

^'Lastly, even the idiots partake of the universal x)rogTess of a civiliza- 
tion which becomes more humane as it becomes more liberal. These 
unfortunates are received into special establishments, and attended to 
Avith the most ingenious care. It is no longer a hope, but a certainty, 
that these poor children can often recover, with a part of their moral 
consciousness, somewhat of the faculty of participating in the feelings, 
objects, and ordinary occupations of the more favored i)ortion of the 
human family. 

'' YII. The improvement in the ordinary means of education i)rovided 
for children, and the restoration of those who may be called the disin- 
herited of nature, were deemed scarcely sufficient by the friends of pro- 
gress in France. They felt it to be necessary that a gTeat educational 
system, extensive, varied, open to all those who wished to teach, as well 
as those desiring to learn, should be made available to adults, offering 
the means of repairing the errors of their parents and guardians, or the 
negligence of youth, the means of extending the elementary knowledge 
received in preparatory schools, and finding in superior instruction suited 
to their pecidiar avocation the legitimate reward of their labors. 

^' The ministerial orders suggesting lectures and evening schools for 
apprentices and gTOT^^l-up x)eople, resi^onded to this double want. Private 
efforts had, it is true, in this instance preceded official decrees. Several 
societies had organized in various places, especially on the behalf of 
town workmen, means for scientific instruction. The Polytechnic Asso- 
ciation, which dates from 1830, numbers now 22 different sections in 
Paris and its environs, while it has founded and endowed a much larger 
number in various dei^artments, showing that individual enterprise has 
been in no wise idle. However, it was only an energetic will appealing 



234 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION 

from high quarters, snch as that of onr minister of public histruction, to 
the general intelligence of the country, that could, in the brief period of 
two years, determine this, and inaugurate such a vast educational move- 
ment Avliich, from the 1st of January, 1864, to the 15th of December, 1866, 
augmented the number of adult educational institutions from 5,623 to 
28,546, and thereby created a spontaneous accession of 600,000 voluntary 
pupils. These institutions have adopted two different methods of instruc- 
tion, each useful in its way, that of lectures to open the minds of the 
public and enlighten them on various important subjects, and that of 
lessons for the purpose of imx>arting precise instruction. The future can 
alone determine how far the system of lectures will enter into the habits 
of our country j but it is of paramount imj)ortance to her dearest interests, 
to her prosperity and her dignity, that the regular education of adults, 
which heretofore has only been sustained by precarious resources and 
by the devotion of the teachers, should be systematized and established as 
a great public institution. This is the object of the law on public instruc- 
tion now under consideration by the legislative body, whose business it 
will be to place adult education on the same permanent footing as the 
legislation of 1833 did for the institutions for the instruction of the youth- 
ful population. The education of apprentices and adults when it passes 
beyond the limits of elementary instruction changes its character, and 
enters into the arena of applied science and art. The programmes of 
the various societies which have for their object the education of the 
working man, clearly show the spirit and the limits of the enterprise. 
HoAvever, the recent introduction of the teaching of living languages, 
commercial geography, and political and industrial economy, cannot fail 
to tend to generalize, and to constitute for the working classes a superior 
order of education, nearly analogous to that adopted in special and high- 
class educational institutions. 

'^yill. If we except some few departmental centres where public 
instruction is favorablj^ endowed, the teaching of the applied arts is much 
better organized and more sought after than that of sciences. The practi- 
cal and successful results achieved by the system of teaching adopted in the 
drawing and modelling schools, secured for France an honorable position 
at the Exhibition of London in 1862, and it has since shown still more 
marked improvement. Paris, which is the chief city of the Avorld for 
the manufacture of the productions of industrial art, has naturally put 
itself at the head of the movement and set the example. The institution 
of a certificate of master or mistress of arts as a reward for skilled 
teachers, the introduction of drawing into the primary schools for girls 
and boys, the reorganization of evening classes for male adults, the open- 
ing of numerous lay schools for female adults, annual competitive exam- 
inations between classes of the same degree, a more enlightened and 
elevated object given to instruction, the renewal of models, and the forma- 
tion of collections according to the rules of the ]nost severe taste — these 
are the great educational ad\ances in Avhich the municipality and the 



EDUCATION IN FEANCE. 235 

state botli participate, and wliicli may be fully appreciated by the con- 
teioplatiou of tlie productions of the pupils, to be seen at the Exhibition. 

"The objects sent by the provincial towns also exhibit most favorable 
results. The workmen, as Avell as the manufacturers themselves, are 
beginning to understand that the superiority of our productions in an 
artistic point of view must be maintained by the increased cultivation 
of artistic and scientific taste. 

''IX. Besides the primary schools and the educational coiu'ses for 
adults, which meet the wants of popular instruction concurrently with 
the classical colleges and collegiate institutions — the studies in which 
are adapted only to the demands of certain social positions and limited 
careers — the middle classes require a system of education more acces- 
sible in its conditions, more economical in its cost, and better suited 
to the wants of a community in which the sciences are constantly 
improving all branches of industry, and which brings ui) its children in 
a liberal manner, and prepares them at once, without any limitation, for 
agTiculture, trade, and commerce, as well as for the arts and public 
employment. 

''The law of the 21st of June, 1865, completing former enactments, the 
superior i)rimary instruction of 1833, the special education of 1817, and 
the professional education of 1850, inaugurated the system referred to. 
At the same time that it was completely established in new schools, 
secondary special education rallied round it under a common denomina- 
tion, but on a broader basis, the establishments which preceded it, namely, 
the superior primary schools, which, as a rule, are not successful, the 
professional schools, which remain isolated, and the commercial colleges, 
where primary special education has not yet attained its development. 
A series of supplemental arrangements have established the new system 
on a solid basis. 

"The action of the Council of Surveillance renders it easily adaptable 
to the several localities without injiuing its original character 5 the 
diplomas conferred at the conclusion of the coiu\se of studj^ set before the 
pupils what is always necessary to sustain and stimulate them in their 
work; the normal school of Cluny, the certificate of capacity, and the 
jimction of literature with science, insiu^e the serAices of a body of pro- 
fessors who will bring into their classes the habits of method and the 
spirit of study under which they themselves have been formed. It is, 
then, not too much to hope that the system of practical secondary edu- 
cation — that is to say, properly speaking, the education of the middle 
classes — is founded in oiu' country on a definite principle. The Exhibition 
presents, as it were, an inventory of aU this work of formation to which, 
dming the last 30 years, the state, the municipal authorities, the chambers 
of commerce, the industrial societies, and, in a marked degree, private 
individuals, have contributed. This multiplicity of efforts has produced 
a great variety of combinations in the programme of studies; still the 
leading ideas show themselves clearly, and indicate the current of thought 



236 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

and uational requirements. TMs new system either sets aside tlie study 
of languages altogether or renders them entirely subordinate, and calls 
in the working element only as a means of, or xireparation for, truly ])to- 
fessional schools. In spite of its name, it is a system of general educa- 
tion, that is to say, theoretical, with a marked practical character. It 
leads to apx)lications, but it does not insist upon them. It stops where 
apprenticeship begins. 

'^ X. Primary instruction, developing itself in adult classes, gives to 
the api3rentice and artisan notions of science which they may apply in 
their own occupations j secondary special instruction initiates its pupils 
in scientific theories, of which they will find the applications in their 
workshops, when they become foremen and manufacturers ; neither the 
one nor the other does away with the necessity of apprenticeship in any 
case. Apprenticeship, however, has a diminishing tendency, in con- 
sequence of the conditions of modern industry. In respect of free Indus 
try, that it should i)roduce, according to the ancient system, good appren- 
tices, and, consequently, good artisans, would be, in respect to many 
professions, a complete illusion. This was clearly shown by the result of 
the inquiry opened by the minister of public works in 1863. The natui'al 
force of circumstances has left technical education to supi^ly the defi- 
ciency of instruction during apprenticeship. Technical education existed, 
in fact, before the name was known. The government, in order to meet 
the varied national wants, long since organized various establishments, 
where real professional apprenticeship was practically carried out. The 
schools of agriculture and the farm schools, the schools of art and manu- 
factm^es, the naval school, &c., are establishments for technical or profes- 
sional education, which are here synonymous terms. Private enterprise 
did still more, because, being unable to incur the same expenditiu?e as 
the state, it acted in a more practical manner. The inquiry has made 
known the useful creations of industrial societies, of large companies, of 
chiefe of works, of heads of free institutions, of congregational estab- 
lishments, who have in opposite parts of the empire realized the 
apprenticeshij) of determined professions with more or less success. 
But, in face of the ever-increasing mass of wants, it was e^ildent that it 
was necessary to encourage and to regulate technical education by mak- 
ing it general. This is the object of a bill now before the legislature. 
The object of technical education differs then clearly from secondary 
special education. The latter remains always general, leads to all the 
industrial professions, but only lends itself to practical work exception- 
ally. It is essentially an edLication; the former, on the* contrary, is par- 
ticular; it prepares pui)ils for a fixed i)rofessiou: it has recourse to edu- 
cation only as an assistaut; it is an apprenticeship. 

" XI. The diffusion of education cannot be carried out without the dif- 
fusion of books; they are the auxiliaries of education, and are, more- 
over, themselves teachers. The colportage — that is to say, the sale of 
books by hawking or otherwise than in shops — can neither dilfuse them 



EDUCATION m FEANCE. 237 

in sufficient nnnibers, give adequate extension to circulation, or place 
tliem in all liancls. Its business is trade, not education ; and, even regu- 
lated as it is, it cannot furnisli sufficient guarantees. Tlie establisliment 
of libraries in all the communes of France, lending or hiring out books, 
l)lacing them T\dtliin the reach of all, was the necessary object of the 
propagation of education. Set on foot by the minister of public instruc- 
tion, established in the communal schools, kept by the schoolmaster, the 
scholars' libraries were the first established. There are at present 8,000 
libraries, which lend 500,000 books per annum. But ministerial action 
was not enough to endow 40,000 commimes with libraries, and i^ublic 
spirit came in aid with remarkable alacrity. A great number of free 
societies have been formed for this si^ecial object j some including the 
whole of an old province, such as Alsace, in their action; others a 
department, and the rest i)urely local in their action. Many in Paris 
attempt to organize for themselves centres of action from which to ope- 
rate on the country around, either in gi\dng their assistance in the forma- 
tion of libraries, or in making known and encouraging good books, or 
by influencing the colportage. Whatever may be the extent of their 
operations, or the mode of their action, they all concur in maintaining a 
healthy agitation, which has already borne good fruit. Not only have 
thousands been induced to read who never before touched a book except 
by accident, but publishers ha^dng thus a large market open to them, 
and authors finding a public always ready for theu^ works, have elimi- 
nated new features in their literary productions. The former, by more 
economic arrangements, have endeavored to reach the perfection of 
cheapness, while the latter comi)rehend that, in order to reach the soul 
of a whole nation, literature must separate itself from refined notions 
and elaborations of style, and that it cannot be too pure either as regards 
the form or the matter. 

'^XII. The exhibition of the progress of education in France would still 
be incomplete were it limited to the groups above indicated; the work 
would be uncrowned. Happily the Minister of the Interior has here 
intervened. By viitue of the Imperial decision, dated November 8, 1856, 
the Exhibition includes not only the acts emanating from his adminis- 
tration and the works of the pupds of the public schools, but also import- 
ant collections from scientific missions, and a series of reports presenting 
a picture of the i)rogTess accomplished in France in science, as weU as in 
letters, during the last twenty years. From the minister of the interior 
to the village schoolmaster, all the representatives of national education 
find themselves thus associated at the Exhibition of 1867 in a common 
responsibility, in the face of France and the whole world." 



GENERAL INDEX 



GROUPS AND CLASSES 



ACCORDING TO THE 



CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED BY THE IMPEKIAL COMMISSION. 



GROUP I. 

WORKS OF ART. 

Class. Page. 

1 . Painting's in Oil ]9 

2. Other Paintings and Drawings 28 

3. Sculpture, Die-sinking, Stone and Cameo Engraving 32 

4. Architectural Designs and Models - . 34 

5. Engraving and Lithography 34 

GROUP 11. 

APPARATUS AND APPLICATION OF THE LIBERAL ARTS. 

6. Printing and Books 35 

7. Paper, Stationery, Binding, Painting, and Drawing Materials 39 

8. Application of Drawing and Modelling to the Common Arts 44 

9. Photographic Proofs and Apparatus 47 

] 0. Musical Instruments 48 

J ] . Medical and Surgical Instruments and Apparatus 51 

12. Mathematical Instruments and Apparatus for Teaching Science 53 

13. Maps and Geographical and Cosmographical Apparatus 54 

GROUP III. 

FURNITURE AND OTHER OBJECTS USED IN DWELLINGS. 

14. Furniture 59 

15. Upholstery and Decorative Work 60 

16. Flint and other Glass ; Stained Glass 61 

17. Porcelain, Earthenw^are, and other Fancy Pottery 65 

IS. Carpets, Tapestry, and Furniture Stuffs 69 

19. Paper Hangings 72 

20. Cutlery 74 

21. Gold and Silver Plate 76 

22. Bronzes and other Artistic Castings and Repousse Work 79 

23. Clock and Watch Work 82 

24. Apparatus and Processes for Heating and Lighting 86 

25. Perfumery 87 

26. Morocco Work, Fancy Articles, and Basket Work 89 



240 INDEX. 



GROUP IV. 

CLOTHING, INCLUDING FABRICS, AND OTHER OBJECTS WORN ON THE PERSON. 

Class. Page. 

27. Cotton Yarns, Threads, and Tissues 95 

28. Flaxen and Hempen Yarns, Threads, and Tissues 97 

29. Combed Wool and Worsted Yarns and Fabrics 98 

.30. Carded Wool and Woollen Yarns and Fabrics- 100 

31. Silk and Silk Manufactures 103 

32. Shawls 106 

33. Lace, Net, Embroidery, and Trimmings 109 

34. Hosiery, Under-clothing, and Minor Articles 115 

35. Clothing for both sexes 126 

36. Jewelry and Ornaments 133 

37. Portable Arms , 138 

38. Travelling and Camp Equipages 1 43 

39. Toys 145 

GROUP V. 

PRODUCTS, RAW AND MANUFACTURED, OF MINING INDUSTRY, FORESTRY, ETC. 

40. Mining and Metallurgy 147 

41. Forest Products and Industries 151 

42. Products of the Chase and Fisheries ; Uncultivated Products 157 

43. Agricultural Products, (not used as food, ) easily preserved 1 60 

44. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Products 164 

45. Specimens of the Chemical Processes used in Bleaching, Dyeing, Printing, and 

Dressing - 165 

46. Leather and Skins 166 

GROUP VI. 

APPARATUS AND PROCESSES USED IN THE COMMON ARTS. 

47. Apparatus and Processes of Mining and Metallurgy 169 

48. Implements and Processes used in the Cultivation of Fields and Forests 174 

49. Implements used in the Chase, Fisheries, and Gathering Wild Products -. 176 

50. Apparatus and Processes used in Agricultural Works, and for the Preparation 

of Food 

51. Apparatus used in Chemistry, Pharmacy, and Tanning 

52. Prime Movers, Boilers, and Engines specially adapted to the requirements of the 

Exhibition 

53. Machines and Apparatus in general 177 

54. Machine Tools 178 

55. Apparatus and Processes used in Spinning and Rope-making 181 

56. Apparatus and Processes used in Weaving 

57. Apparatus and Processes for Sewing and for making up Clothing 184 

58. Apparatus and Processes used in the Manufacture of Furniture and other objects 

for Dwellings 185 

59. Apparatus and Processes used in Paper-making, Dyeing and Printing 187 

60. Machines, Instruments, and Processes used in various works 

61. Carriages and Wheelwrights' Work , 188 

62. Harness and Saddlery : 190 

63. Railway Apparatus 191 

64. Telegraphic Apparatus and Processes 193 

65. Civil Engineering, Public Works, and Architecture 200 

60. Navigation and Life-boats, Yachts, and Pleasure-boats 204 



INDEX. 241 
GEOUP VII. 

FOOD, FRESH OR PRESERVED, IN VARIOUS STATES OF PRESERVATION. 

Class. Page. 

67. Cereals and other Eatable Farinaceous Products, with their Derivatives 207 

68. Bread and Pastry 

69. Fatty Substances used as Food ; Milk and Eggs 210 

70. Meat and Fish 212 

71. Vegetables and Fruit 213 

72. Condiments and Stimulants ; Sugar and Confectionery 215 

73. Fermented Drinks. 219 

GEOUP VIII. 

LIVE STOCK AND SPECIMENS OF AGRICULTURAL BUILDINGS, 

74. Farm Buildings and Agricultural Works 223 

75. Horses, Asses, Mules 

76. Bulls, Buffaloes, &c 

77. Sheep, Goats 

78. Pigs, Eabbits 

79. Poultry 

80. Sporting Dogs and Watch Dogs 

81. Useful Insects 

82. Fish, Crustacea, and Mollusca 

GEOUP IX. 

LIVE PRODUCE AND SPECIMENS OF HORTICULTURAL WORKS. 

83. Glass Houses and Apparatus 225 

84. Flowers and Ornamental Plants 225 

85. Vegetables 

86. Fruit Trees 

87. Seeds and Saplings of Forest Trees 

88. Hot-house Plants 

GEOUP X. 

ARTICLES EXHIBITED WITH THE SPECIAL OBJECT OF IMPROVING THE PHYSICAL AND 
MORAL CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE. 

89. Apparatus and Methods used in the Instruction of Children 229 

90. Libraries and Apparatus used in the Instruction of Adults at Home, in the Work- 

shop, or in Schools and Colleges 229 

91. Furniture, Clothing, and Food from all sources, remarkable for useful qualities 

combined with cheapness 

92. Specimens of the Clothing worn by the people of different countries 

93. Examples of Dwellings characterized by cheapness combined with the conditions 

necessary for health and comfort 

94. Articles of all kinds Manufactured by Working Masters 

95. Instruments and Processes peculiar to Working Masters 

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REFERENCES 



TO THE 



PLAN OF THE BUILDING AND PARK. 



REFERENCES TO THE UPPER LEFT HAND CORNER OF THE PLAN. 

A. — Spain. — 1, Moorish Farm-house; 2, Valentian Cottage. 

B. — Portugal. — 3, Silk-worm Nursery. 

C. — Switzerland. — 4, Fine Arts Annexe. 

I>, — Austria. — 5, Bakery; 6, Restaurant; 7, Hungarian House ; 8, Styrian House 
9, Lower Austrian House ; 10, Tyrolean House ; 11, Stables ; 12, Riding School. 

E.— ScHLESWiG-HoLSTEiN. — 13, General Exhibition. 

F.— WURTEMBERG.— 14, Annexe. 

O. — Prussia. — 15, Annexe; 16, School-house; 17, Lake ; 18, Equestrian Statue. 

H. — Bavaria. — 19, Principal Annexe ; 20, Annexe. 

I. — Norway. 

J. — Denmark. ■*' 

K..— Sweden. — 21, House of Gustavus Vasa. 

li. — Russia. — 22, Caucasian House ; 23, Boiler. 

M. — France. — 24, Agricultural Exhibition; 25, Offices and Warehouses ; 26, Restaurant. 

Addenda. — a. Agricultural Machinery ; b, Swiss Annexe ; c, Russian Stables ; d. Con- 
cert Hall ; e, Russian Annexe. 

\ 
references to the lower left-hand corner of THE plan. 

France — Continued.— 27, Conservatory ; 28, Lake ; 29, Marine Aquarium ; 30, Fresh- 
water Aquarium ; 31, Greenhouse ; 32, Temperate Greenhouse ; 33, Cold Greenhouse ; 34, 
Greenhouse; 35, Botanical Diorama; 36, 37, 38, Greenhouses; 39, Restaurant; 40, 41, 
Greenhouses ; 42, Orchestra ; 43, Tent of Her Imperial Majesty the Empress ; 44, 45, Green- 
houses; 46, Botanical Diorama; 47, Greenhouse ; 48, Post Office and Telegraph. 

N.— Belgium.— 49, Fine Arts Annexe ; 50, Exhibition of Railway Plant, &c. 

O. — Holland. — 51, Farm-house ; 52, Fine Arts Annexe; 53, Exhibition of Carriages. 

Addenda. — f. Police and Firemen ; g. Turnstile ; h. Cloak-rooms. 

REFERENCES TO THE UPPER RIGHT-HAND CORNER OF THE PLAN. 

P.— PrALY. — 54, Museum ; 55, Boiler. 

Q.— SiAM, Japan, and China.— 56, Chinese Tea House ; 57, Theatre. 

R.— Tunis.— 58, Bey's Palace. 



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PLAN OF THE BUIEDING JK.'NID PARK 

To Accompajiy the General Report - Fot Explanations see pa,^e.T.- I r I4,l^,lii. 



244 REFERENCES. 

S.— Egypt.— 59, Cafe ; 60, Temple of Edfou ; 61, Summer Palace of the Viceroy ; 62, 
Exhibition of the Plan of the Suez Canal. 

T.— Danubian Principalities. 

XJ.— Morocco.— 63, Imperial Tent. 

v.— Turkey.— 64, School-house ; 65, Mosque. 

W. — United States. — 66, Boiler-house; 67, American Farmer's House, or Illinois 
Cottage ; 68, United States School-house ; 69, Louisiana Cottage. 

X.— Mexico and Brazil.— 70, Temple. 

Y.— Great Britain and Ireland.— 71, Testing House, (heating apparatus, &c. ;) 72, 
Light-house ; 73, Barrack Huts ; 74, Public Munitions of War ; 75, Private Munitions of 
War ; 76, Exhibition of Protestant Mission. 

Addenda. — hh, Jurors' Meeting Room ; i. United States Annexe ; j, English Annexe i 
k. Cafe and Concert-room ; 1, Concert Hall; m, International Club; n, Restaurant; o, Gas 
Works ; p. Exhibition of English Marine Machinery. 

REFERENCES TO THE LOWER RIGHT-HAND CORNER OF THE PLAN. 

Z.— France — Continued. — ^77, Imperial Tent; 78, Engine; 79, Exhibition of Pottery; 
80, Exhibition of Cashmere Shawls; 81, Waterfall; 82, Swiss Cottage; 83, Exhibition of 
Glass; 84, Exhibition of Photosculpture ; 85, Windmill; 86, Church; 87, Fire Engine; 88, 
Police and Firemen; 89, Lake; 90, Light-house; 91, Materials for Cleansing Woollen 
Fabrics ; 92, Leather Working Machines ; 93, Theatre ; 94, Refrigerating Apparatus ; 95, 
Mills and Presses ; 96, French War Office Exhibition ; 97, Porcelain ; 98, Photography. 

Addenda. — qq, Exhibition of Fire Engines ; r. Mining Exhibition ; s. Machinery ; t, 
Railway Plant, &c. ; uu. Money Exchange Offices; v. Equestrian Statues; w, French 
Marine Engines ; x, Exhibition of Pleasure Boats ; y, Restaurant. 



REPORT 



UPON THE 



CHARACTEE AND COIDITIOI 



OP THE 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 



17 UE 



CONTENTS 



Page. 

General Observations upon the United States Section 247 

Descriptive Catalogue of the Products of the United States 255 

List of Awards by the International Juries to Exhibitors from the 
United States 315 



UNITED STATES SECTION 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS AND CATALOGUE. 

Space occupied and number of Exhibitors — Number of Awards to Exhibitors 
AND others— Percentage of Awards— Notices of the various Groups— Cat- 
alogues AND other Publications — Descriptive Catalogue of the United 
States Section — List of Awards. 

SPACE OCCFPIED AND AWAEDS. 

The space occupied by the United States was a sector of the building 
in the end towards the Seine. It was separated on one side from the 
space allotted to China and Japan by the Eue d'Afrique, (one of the 
transverse avenues,) and on the other side it was separated from the 
portion of the building occupied by Great Britain and its colonies, by a 
narrow sector devoted to the products of South America. 

The superficial area of this sector was 38,488 square feet. In addition 
to this there Trerc the constructions in the Park, the space at Billancourt, 
and a long rectangular building at one side of the Park, called the Annex, 
provided for many objects that could not conveniently be received in the 
building. The total space occupied was as foUows : 

Square feet. 

In the Palace 38, 488 

In the Park 55, 769 

At Billancourt 3, 880 



Total '...... 98, 137 

The total number of entries in the of&cial catalogue was 717 ; but this 
did not show the exact number of exhibitors, for some of the objects 
entered being broken or damaged were not set up. The same exhibits 
were, in some cases, entered under different classes. I'he total number of 
exhibitors whose products were present in time and competing for prizes 
was 536, as shown by the following resume : 

Whole number of entries in the catalogue 717 

Deduct the products broken and not set up, including the liors 

concours 17 

Repetitions of the same names, and admissions at different 

dates through the season, after the jury work was closed 164 

181 

Present in time and competing for prizes 536 



248 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The nature of the objects exhibited is fully shown in the descriptive 
catalogue which forms a part of this report. 

The total number of awards to the exhibitors from the United States 
was as follows : 

Grand prizes 5 

Artists' medal 1 

Gold medals 18 

Silver medals 76 

Bronze medals 98 

Honorable mentions 93 

Total awards 291 



Full details of the distribution of these awards are given in the list 
appended to this report. 

From the tabular statement prepared by Mr. Beckwith and presented 
in the preface to the General Beport, it appears that the percentage of 
awards to exhibitors from the United States was 52.79 j the percentage 
to exhibitors from France was 55.57^ and to those from Great Britain 
and colonies, 26.10. The general average percentage of awards to all 
exhibitors was 34.53. Next after France the United States stands highest 
upon the list. Mr. Beckwith observes in the preface before cited : 

" The high position conceded by the verdict of the juries to American 
industrial products is not due in general to gTacefol design, fertile com- 
binations of pleasing colors, elegant forms, elaborate finish, or any of 
the artistic qualities which cultivate the taste and refine the feelings by 
awakening in the mind a higher sense of beauty, but it is owing to their 
skilful, direct, and admirable adaptation to the great wants they are 
intended to supply, and to the originality and fertility of invention which 
converts the elements and natural forces to the commonest uses, multi- 
plying results and diminishing toil* 

" The peculiar and valuable qualities of our products will be adopted 
and reproduced in all parts of Europe, improving the mechanical and 
industrial arts, and it is reasonable to expect and gratifying to believe 
that the benefits will be reciprocal, that our products will in time acquire 
those tasteful and pleasing qualities which command more admiration 
and find a quicker and better market than the barely useful." 

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

As a participator in this great international display the United States 
labored under many disadvantages. The nation had not recovered from 
the paralyzing effects of the disastrous war of the rebellion, and the 
people were not aroused in season to an appreciation of the importance 
of the projected Exhibition. The manufacturing industry of the country 
was in a transition state. Labor was scarce and dear, and many manu- 
facturers found it difficult to fiU the orders which had been received, and 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 249 

thus could not undertake tlie preparation of goods for exhibition. The 
remoteness of the Exhibition greatly discouraged effort, inasmuch as 
comparatively few of the exhibitors could be present and attend to 
placing and explaining their contributions. The broad Atlantic separ- 
ated our artizans and x^roducers from the Champ de Mars, while most of 
the great competing nations were connected by rail directly with the 
Exposition building. The cost of transportation within the limits of the 
United States to the agency in Kew York was considerable, and although 
the contributions were forwarded across the ocean by the government, 
no provision was made for the repacking and return of the articles, 
which, at the close of the Exhibition, were to be at the risk and expense 
of the exhibitor, and thus many persons who would have joined in the 
Exhibition were deterred from taking any part in it. 

Yet, notwithstanding all these difficulties, the country may be con- 
gratulated upon the success of its exhibition ; and that the skill, indus- 
try, and energy of the people did not suffer by comparison in the great 
international contest. 

Our raw materials were not excelled by any in the Exposition, and by 
their variety, abundance, and quality, gave convincing evidence of the 
extraordinary natural wealth of our States and Territories. In the dis- 
play of mineral products the coal of Pennsylvania, the gold and silver 
ores of California, Nevada, Idaho, and Colorado, the copper and iron of 
Minnesota, the zinc ores of Kew Jersey, and the emery of Massachusetts, 
were especially x)rominent. The collection was rich ; but some regions 
and products were disproportionately represented, and it lacked that 
unity and completeness which can only be attained through intelligent 
organized effort. Almost aU other prominent displays in this class w ere 
prepared with the strong aid and authority of the governments, through 
regularly organized corps of engineers. 

In forestry and i)roductions of the forest the display made by the 
United States was meagre. Much attention was given to this class by 
other countries ; the display made by France, Brazil, Australia, and 
Canada, were notable features of the Exposition. Several of these col- 
lections, as also some of the collections of mineral products, had been 
prepared for previous great exhibitions, and may be regarded as standard 
displays, which are added to and improved at each new exhibition. 

The exhibitions of the cereal productions and of the cotton, tobacco, 
wool, and other staple products, though in some instances prominent 
and thoroughly satisfactory, were in general fragmentary and not on a 
scale commensurate with the enormous cai)acity of the country for their 
production. 

The most notable deficiency in the exhibition made by the United 
States was in Group III, including the application of the fine arts to the 
useful arts. This deficiency was shown by the absence of rich furnish- 
ings, upholstery, and decorative work, and manufactures depending for 
their excellence upon a high degree of taste and skill in design. There 



250 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

was no fine display of ricMy decorated porcelain and faience, encaustic 
tiles, and marquetry ; and, with the notable exception of the bronzed iron 
work of Messrs. Tucker & Company, no collection of artistic bronzes, bas- 
reliefs, and ornamental castings, nor of highly ornamented and artistic 
furniture. 

The bronze work of the Messrs. Tucker may justly be excepted for its 
novelty, intrinsic excellence, and artistic value. It attracted much 
attention, and the articles were in demand. Some were ordered in per- 
son by the King of Prussia. 

OBSEEYATIONS UPOK THE aEOUPS. 

The following observations ui)on the display made by the United States 
in several of the groups are from, a report submitted by Commissioner 
Freese and others. 

''In Group II, 'Materials and their applications in the liberal arts,' we 
find among the contributions made by the 86 American exhibitors much 
to admire and commend.^ The specimens of typography were such as 
could not fail to be commended by any one conversant with the art, and 
we are pleased to observe that three of the exhibitors of book printing 
received prizes. Of specimens of stationery, book-binding, &c., the dis- 
play is very limited, and out of all proportion with our immense trade in 
these articles, and yet of the 13 exhibitors no less than six received 
prizes, proving that what is lacking in quantity and variety of these 
articles in the Exhibition is more than made up in quality. Of plastic 
moulding there is but one exhibitor and three specimens, one represent- 
ing what is called ' Uncle Ned's School,' another called ' Taking the Oath 
and Drawing Rations,' and a third called ' The Charity Patient,' repre- 
senting a benevolent faced old doctor compounding a prescription for a 
poor woman in waiting. All these are peculiarly American, and are 
admirably executed. Of proofs and apparatus of photography most of 
the specimens are commendable, and of the ten exhibitors four received 
prizes. 

" Of instruments of music the display, though small, adds decidedly 
to the character of the American exhibition. Of the nine exliibitors in 
this class two received gold medals, one a silver medal, and two bronze 
medals. 

" In Group IV the contributors to the American exhibition are few in 
number, (only 54.) Of yarns and tissues of cotton the contributors are 
six, and of these five have received prizes. Of other yarns and tissues 
of linen, hemp, wool, and silk, the contributors are nine, of whom five 
have received awards. Of shawls, hosiery, and clothing, the contribu- 
tors are sixteen, of whom five have received recognition. But the great 
feature of tliis group was the display of breech-loading fire-arms, metal- 
lic cartridges, and rifled cannon, of which there are fourteen contribu- 
tors, of whom seven have received gold or silver medals. 

' In this and the following enumerations of tlie number of exhibitors no allowance has been 
made for the repetitions of entries in the catalogue. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 251 

^' To Group Y American contributors have made most noble and appro- 
priate contributions, embracing products (raw and manufactured) of 
mining industry, forestry, etc. 

" In Class 40 of this group the following States and Territories have 
contributed from their mines and quarries : Illinois, Minnesota, Massa- 
chusetts, Kew Jersey, Michigan, Ohio, California, IsTevada, Arkansas, 
Missouri, Louisiana, Alabama, Kansas, Iowa, Wisconsin, Pennsylvania, 
lifew York, Tennessee, Vermont, Georgia, West Virginia, Utah, and Idaho. 

" In products of the forest, embraced in the next class, (41,) we find 
specimens of woods from Missouri, Kansas, Wisconsin, Illinois, New 
York, Massachusetts, California, Louisiana, and Utah. 

" Passing to Group VI, comprising instruments and processes of com- 
mon arts, we find in the American exhibition a larger number of. exhib- 
itors (227) than in any other of the groups, though this is accounted for 
in the fact that this group embraces a larger number of classes, (20,) and 
consequently a larger range of articles, than any other. 

A large proportion of the contributions to this group add to the excel- 
lence of the American exhibition, and that some should fail to do so is 
scarcely to be wondered at, among so large a number of contributions. 

" Of apparatus and methods of mining and metallurgy there are four 
contributors, two of whom have received prizes ; of implements and pro- 
cesses of rural and forest work there are 25 contributors, six of whom 
received medals, of which two, for the best specimens of mowing and 
reaping machines, are of gold; of apparatus for hunting, fishing, &c., 
there is but one contributor, and the contribution is of no special value ; 
of materials and method, of agricultural work, and of alimentary industry, 
there are 20 contributors, eight of whom have received recognition, and 
nearly all the contributions do credit to the genius and industrial activity 
of our country; of chemical, pharmaceutic, and tanning apparatus there are 
seven contributors, four of whom have received medals and honorable 
mention, and the other three are scarcely less worthy of a like recogni- 
tion; of machines and mechanical apparatus in general, we have 38 
contributions; that these should havebeenawardedno less than 21 prizes, 
(over 50 per centum of the number of exhibitors,) cannot be otherwise 
than gratifying to every American. 

" Of machine tools we have 14 contributors, 10 of whom have 
received recognition, and the contributions of the other four are com- 
mendable ; of cotton-ginning, cord-twisting, and burr-picking machines 
we have five contributions, all good, and two of which have received 
recognition ; of weaving and knitting machines we have five specimens, 
three of which have received silver medals ; of apparatus and process of 
sewing and making clothes, (which class includes our inimitable sewing 
machines, in which, as agreed upon by aU impartial judges, we are far 
in advance of aU other nations,) there are 18 contributors, of whom 
two have received gold medals, and one of them an imperial decoration ; 
three have received silver medals ; seven, bronze medals ; and one an 



252 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

honorable mention, making a sum total of 13 prizes among 18 con- 
tributors. Of apparatus and methods of making furniture and house- 
hold objects, there are 10 contributors, three of whom received prizes, and 
others of this class would, doubtless, have received high prizes could they 
have been present themselves to explain to the jury the peculiar working 
and intrinsic value of their inventions. Of machinery for paper making, 
printing, &c., there are but five contributors, and none of the great steam 
power printing presses, for which American inventors and manufactu- 
rers have become so justly celebrated, were included in this display ; and 
of five exhibitors in this class, two have received medals, while another 
machine for dressing type, classified under the next head, received the 
award of a gold medal, and is every way worthy of it. 

"Passing into the annex, we find two American buggies, and a street 
railway carriage, all three of which are fine specimens of skill and taste in 
carriage-building, and all of which received prizes. l!^ear these are 
ladies and gentlemen's saddles, ofgood workmanship, which also received 
recognition from the jury. Here, too, we find the great American loco- 
motive, which in workmanship and beauty of finish far excels all others 
in the Exposition, and to which the jury awarded a gold medal. There 
are eight other contributions to this class, though only one other — a rail- 
road scale — received a prize. 

" Of models relating to navigation and salvage there are 14 contribu- 
tors to the American exhibition, four of whom received recognition from 
the jury, and nearly all the specimens do honor to the inventors. 

" 'Next in review we reach Group YII, and find from the Department of 
Agriculture, Washington, D. C, 33 samples of wheat and other cereals, 
from as many different States and special localities, together with a 
large number of contributions of like character direct from the States. 
The specimens are invariably good, and have attracted a large share of 
attention from European agriculturists, and would have attracted more 
had their installation been better. Of the 17 private contributors to this 
class, nine have received awards. Of baking and pastry cooking we have 
but one contribution, and judging from the quality of bread, cake, and 
crackers produced we should call it first-rate, but for some cause it has 
received no recognition from the jury. Of prepared specimens of meat 
and fish, (including salt-cured and smoked hams, packed beef, pork, and 
lard, i)reserved lobster, canned oysters, &c.,) we have seven contribu- 
tions, and every one has received an award. 

" Of preserved fruits and vegetables, sugars, chocolates, &c., the con- 
tributors number 21, of whom 10 have received awards, and all the 
samples are commendable. Of fermented drinks, such as mnes, brandies, 
ales, porters, and brown-stouts, the contributors number 25, of whom 
seven received awards. 

" This brings us to Group X, the last, though not the least important. 
Here we find a specimen of a western i)rimary school-house, school fur- 
niture, and school apparatus. It is safe to say that nothing in the 



UNITEl) STATES SECTION. 253 

American exhibition has excited more general attention and commenda- 
tion from European visitors, and no other of our exhibits tended to 
excite more general inquiry into the peculiar character of our political 
institutions, and especially as to the relations which those institutions 
bear toward our common school system. The school-room, in size, finish, 
ventilation, and furnishing, is superior to any other in the Exposition, 
and the apparatus within, though not in quantity, certainly in quality, 
equals those exhibited by any otlier nation. But as a report is in course 
of preparation, covering the whole subject of school-houses, school appa- 
ratus, &c., additional remarks are here unnecessary. 

'' In this same class we find books and apparatus for the use of the 
blind, contributed from Massachusetts, which are in every way quite 
equal to any others in the Exposition, ^nd we are pleased to know that 
both these and the school building received awards. 

'' Passing to the next class, (20,) we find the articles to consist of sur- 
gical instruments, artificial limbs, hospital wagon, ambulance and relief 
material, medicine wagon, and camp equipage, such as were used by the 
United States Sanitary Commission, and all collected by one of the United 
States commissioners. To the United States Sanitary Commission the 
jury awarded a grand prize, and each of the other six exhibitors in this 
class received recognition. 

" In the next class (93) we find three specimens of houses from the 
United States, namely, a western farmer's house, a Boston bakery, and 
a cottage made of Louisiana cypress. The first of these has deservedly 
attracted a large share of attention, and added much to the character of 
the American exhibition. It is decidedly American in its construction — 
plain, substantial, and convenient — representing thrift and comfort with- 
out display." 

CATALOGUES AND OTHER PUBLICATIONS. 

Three editions were published and circulated of an of&cial catalogue 
of the products of the United States that were exhibited. This cata- 
logue was printed in English, French, and German, and was accompanied 
by geographical and statistical notices in French upon the population, 
trade, and resources of the United States, j)repared from data furnished 
by the Secretary of the Interior.^ 

A special catalogue in 8vo of the minerals of the United States exhib- 
ited in Group Y, class 40, was also iirinted. This catalogue was com- 
piled by Commissioner D'Aligny. 

Numerous copies in English, French, German, and Swedish, of the 
report of the Commissioner of the United States General Land Office for 

1866, accompanic d by a map, were gratuitously distributed. 

^ The following is ':he title of this catalogue in fnll. It was printed in 12mo, pp. 160: 
"Official Catalogue of the Products of the United States of America exhibited at Paris, 

1867, with Statistics.l Notices. Catalogue in English, Catalogue Fran9ais, Deutscher Cata- 
log. Third edition. Paris : Impriirierie Centrale des Chemins de Fer. A. Chaix et Cie, Rue 
Berg^re, 20, prds du Boulevard Montmartre, 1867." 



254 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

The territorial commissioner from Colorado published a beautifully 
printed pamphlet descriptive of the Territory and its resources, and of 
the large collection of the ores of gold, silver, and copper. These books 
were printed in French and in English, and were gratuitously distributed 
to those who took an interest in the display from that portion of the 
United States. 

The State commissioner from Nevada published a small edition of a 
similar pamphlet, accompanied by a map of eastern I^evada. 

The Agricultural Society of the State of California sent a few sets of 
its transactions for distribution. Illinois also sent reports of its Agri- 
cultural Society and complete sets of- the reports on the geology of the 
State. A small volume on the mineral, agricultural, and manufacturing 
resources of the State of Alabama, was printed in Paris, and gratuitously 
distributed. The colony of Yineland, New Jersey, also circulated a 
descriptive pamphlet. 

The descriptive catalogue of the products of the United States which 
follows will show the character of the exhibition made in the various 
groups and classes. The notices of the various objects have been pre- 
pared, in part, from data furnished by Dr. Thomas W. Evans, of Paris. 



DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE 

OF THE 

PRODUCTS OF THE TJIITED STATES, 

EXHIBITED AT PAEIS, 1867. 



GROUP I. 

WOEKS OF ART. 

CLASS 1— PAINTINGS IN OIL. 



Baker, G. A., Kew York. — 1. Portrait of a Child, the property of A. 
M. Oozzens, esq. 2. Portrait of a Lady, the property of F. Pren- 
tice, esq. 

Beard, W. H., ]!?}"ew York. — 3. The Bears' Dance, the property of Josiah 
Caldwell, esq. 

Bierstadt, a., Kew York. — 4. The Rocky Mountains, the property of 
James McHenry, esq. 

BouGHTON, Gr. H., Albany, l^ew York.- — 5. Winter Twilight, the property 
of R. L. Stuart, esq. 6. The Penitent, the property of J. F. Ken- 
sett, esq. 

Casilear, J. W., Kew York. — ^7. Genesee Flats, the property of Shepard 
Gandy, esq. 8. A Swiss Lake, the property of R. M. Olyphant, esq. 

Church, F. E., Kew York. — 9. Niagara, the property of J. Taylor John- 
ston, esq. 10. The Rainy Season in the Tropics, the proi)erty of M. 
O. Roberts, esq. Mr. Church received the Artists' Medal, with 500 
francs in gold. 

Cole, J. F., Boston, Massachusetts. — 11. Pastoral Landscape. 

CoLMAN, S., Kew York.— 12. View of the Alhambra. 

Cropsey, J. F., Kew York. — 13. Mount Jefferson, Kew Hampshire, the 
property of R. M. Olyphant, esq. 

Dix, C. T., Kew York.— 14. Marine. 

DuRAND, A. B., Kew York. — 15. In the Woods, the property of J. Stur- 
gess, esq. 16. A Symbol, the property of R. M. Olyphant, esq. 

Elliott, C. L., Kew York. — 17. A Portrait, the property of Fletcher 
Harper, esq. 

GiFFORD, S. R., Kew York. — 18. Twilight on Mount Hunter, the prop- 
erty of J. W. Pinchot, esq. 19. Home in the Wilderness, the prop- 
erty of M. Knoedler, esq. 



256 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GEOUPI. 

GiGNOUX, R., New York. — 20. Mount Washington, ^ew Hampshire, the 
property of A. T. Stewart, esq. 

Gray, H. P., E'ew York.— 21, The Apple of Discord, the property of R. 
M. Olyphant, esq. 22. The Pride of the Tillage, the property of W. 
H. Osborn, esq. 

Hart, James M., Kew York. — 23. Landscape : Tunxis River, Connec- 
ticut, the property of S. P. Avery, esq. 

H:]p:ALY, G. P. A., Chicago, Illinois.— 24. Portrait of Lieutenant Gen- 
eral Sherman. 25. Portrait of a Lady, the property of W. B. Dun- 
can, esq. 

Homer, Winslow, l^ew York. — 26. Confederate Prisoners at the Front, 
the property of J. Taylor Johnston, esq. 27. The Bright Side, the 
property of W. H. Hamilton, esq. 

Hubbard, R. W., New York. — 28. View of the Adirondacks, taken near 
Mount Mansfield, the property of Mrs. H. B. Cromwell. 29. Early 
Autumn, the property of H. G. Marquand, esq. 

Hunt, W. M., Boston, Massachusetts.— 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36. Por- 
traits. 37. Portrait of Abraham Lincoln. 38, 39. Italian Boy. 40. 
Dinan, in Brittany. 41. The Quarry. 

Huntington, D., New York. — 42. Portrait of Gulian C. Verplanck, 
esq. 43. The Republican Court, time of Washington, the property 
of A. T. Stewart, esq. 

Inness, Georoe, Perth Amboy, New Jersey. — 44. American Sunset, 
the propety of Marcus Spring, esq. 45. Landscape, with cattle. 

Johnson, E., New York. — 46. Old Kentucky Home, the property of H. 
W. Derby, esq. 47. Mating, the property of Major General John 
A. Dix. 48. Piddling his Way, the property of R. L. Stuart, esq. 
49. Sabbath Morning, the property of Robert Hoe, esq. 

Johnson, F., Brooklyn, New York. — 50. The Omelet. 

Kensett, J. F., New York. — 51. Lake George in Autumn, the prop- 
erty of R. M. Olyphant, esq. 52. Coast, Newport Harbor, the prop- 
erty of G. T. Olyphant, esq. 53. Glimpse of the White Mountains, 
the property of R. L. Stuart, esq. 54. Morning oft the Coast of 
Massachusetts, the property of S. Gandy, esq. 

Lambdin, G. C, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 55. The Consecration, 
1861, the j)roperty of George Whitney, esq. 56. The Last Sleep. 

Langdon, Woodbury, New York. — 57. The Storm. 58. Out at Sea. 

Lafaroe, John, Newport, Rhode Island. — 59. Flowers, the property of 
S. F. Van Chote, esq. 

Leutze, E., New York. — 60. Mary Stuart hearing the first mass at Holy- 
rood, after her return from France, the prox^erty of John A. Riston. 
esq. 

Lewis, J. S., Burlington, New Jersey. — 61. The Fisher Boy. 

May, E. C, New York. — 62. Lady Jane Grey giving her Tablets to the 
Governor of the Tower on lier way to Execution. 63. Lear and Cor- 
delia, (King Lear, Act IV, scene 7.) 64. Portrait. 



CLASS II-IV.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 257 

Mac Entee, J., New York. — 65. Virginia in 1863, the property of CjT?ns 
Butler, esq. 66. Last of October, the property of S. 0. Evans, esq. 
67. Autumn, Asliokan Woods, the property of Eobert Hoe, esq. 

MiGNOT, L. E., 'New York. — 68. Sources of the Susquehanna, the prop- 
erty of H. W. Derby, esq. 

MoRAN, T., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 69. Autumn on the Cone- 
maugh, in Pennsylvania, the property of C. L, Sharpless, esq. 70. 
The Children of the Mountain. 

Owen, GEORaE, New York. — 71. Study from Nature, New England 
scenery. 

EiCHARDS, W. T., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.— 72. Woods in June, the 
property of E. L. Stuart, esq. 73. Foggy Day at Nantucket, the 
property of George Whitney, esq. 

Weir, J. F., New York.— 74. The Gun Foundry, the property of E. P. 
Parrott, esq. 

Whistler, J. McNeil, Baltimore, Maryland. — 75. The White Girl. 
76. ''Wapping," or '^ On the Thames." 77. Old Battersea Bridge. 
78. T^Yilight on the Ocean. 

White, E., New York. — 79. Thoughts of Liberia, the property of E. L. 
Stuart, esq. « 

Whittrid&e, W., New York. — 80. The Old Hunting Ground, the prop- 
erty of J. W. Pinchot, esq. 81. Ehode Island Coast, the property 
of A. M. Cozzens, esq. 

Weber, Paul, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 82. Bolton Park, England. 

CLASS 2.— VARIOUS PAINTINGS AND DESIGNS. 

Darley, F. O. C, New York. — 1. Cavalry Charge at Fredericksburg, 

Virginia, the property of W. T. Blodgett, esq. 
Johnson, E., New York. — 2. Wounded Drummer Boy, the property of 

the Century Club. 
EowsE, S. W., Boston, Massachusetts. — 3. Crayon Portrait of Ealph 

Waldo Emerson, esq. 4. Crayon Portrait of J. Eussell Lowell, esq. 

class 3.— sculpture, DIE-SINKING, STONE AND CAMEO ENGRAVING. 

HosMER, Miss H. G., Boston, Massachusetts. — 1. The Sleeping Faun. 
Thompson, L., New York.— 2. Statue of Napoleon, the property of C. 0. 

D. Pinchot, esq. ; cast by Mr. L. A. Amouroux. 3. Bust of a Eocky 

Mountain Trapper. 
Yolk, L. W., Chicago, Illinois. — 4. Bust of A. Lincoln. 
Ward, J. Q. A., New York.— 5. The Indian Hunter and his Dog, the 

property of the Central Park, New York; cast by Mr. L. A. Amouroux. 
. 6. The Freedman, the property of John Baker, esq.; cast by Mr. L. 

A. Amouroux. 

CLASS 4.— ARCHITECTURAL DESIGNS AND MODELS. 

(For American Farmer^s House, and School-house, see Group X, 
class 93.) 



258 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group ii. 

CLASS 5.— ENGRAVING AND LITHOGRAPHY. 

Marshall, W. E. — Lincoln j engraving on steel. Washington; engrav- 
ing on steel. 
Halpin, F., Kew York. — President Lincoln; engraving on steel. 
Whistler, James McKeil, Baltimore, Maryland.— Twelve etchings. 

GROUP II. 

APPAEATUS AKD APPLICATION OF THE LIBEEAL AETS. 
CLASS 6.— PRINTING AND BOOKS. 

American Bank I^ote Company, 'New York. — Specimens of bank-note 

engraving and printing. 
A^iERiCAN Bible Society, I^ew York. — Specimen copies of the publi- 
cations of the society. 
Since the formation of this society, in 1816, it has received from sales 
and donations $10,847,854, and has issued, in every known language, an 
aggregate of 22,118,475 copies of the Holy Scriptures. It has 17 power 
presses, and about 400 persons employed in the Bible House. During 
the late war 6,555,231 volumes were issued. 

Appleton, D., & Co., I^ew York. — Books, includiug a copy of the Ameri- 
can Encyclopaedia. Bronze medal. 

Baker & Godwin, Printing-house square, New York. — TypogTaphy, 
plain and in colors. 

Bond, Professor G. P., Cambridge, Massachusetts. — Description of the 
Great Comet of 1858. 

Bradstreet, J. M., & Son, 18 Beekman street, New York. — Specimen 
of book printing by Hoe's press. 

Brewer & Tileston, 131 Washington street, Boston, Massachusetts. — 
Worcester's Dictionary. 

Broughton, Nicholas, Jr., 28 Cornhill, Boston, Massachusetts. — 
Specimens of typography from the American Tract Society. 

BuPFORD, J. H., & Sons, 313 Washington street, Boston, Massachu- 
setts. — Lithographic view of Mr. Bacon's bakery, in that establish- 
ment. 

Demorest, W. J., 437 Broadway, New York. — Specimens of a monthly 
magazine, illustrated. 

Gallaudet, E. M., President of the Columbia Institute for the Deaf 
and Dumb, Washington, D. C. — Eeports of that institution. 

Houghton, H. O., & Co., Eiverside, Cambridge, Massachusetts. — Speci- 
men books illustrated. Bronze medal. 

Illinois, State of.— Eeports of the State Geologist, Superintendent 
of Public Instruction, Adjutant General, State Agricultural Society, 
Chicago Board of Trade, &c. 



CLASS vn, VIII.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 259 

E[neass, N. B., Jr., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Books for the use of 
the blind. 
The exhibitor of these books is blind, and a graduate of the Institution 

of Teachers in Pennsylvania. 

Merriam, G. & O.j Springfield, Massachusetts. — Specimens of book 
printing. Bronze medal. 

Missouri, State of. — Books; in the Farmer's Cottage, Park. 

!N"ATiONAL Bank E^ote Company. — Samples of bank note engraving 
and printing. 

Prano & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. — Chromo-lithographs ; in the 
Eestaurant. 

State Agricultural Society of California. — Eeports and Trans- 
actions ', several sets distributed through the Commissioner, but not 
on exhibition except in the American Farm-house. 

Many copies of these publications were distributed by exchange with 
those most interested in these subjects. 

CLASS 7.— PAPER, STATIONERY, BOOK-BINDING, PAINTING. AND DRAWING 

materials. 

American Lead Pencil Company, l^ew York. — Samples of lead pen- 
cils. Bronze medal. 

Bacon, S, T., Boston, Massachusetts, — Of&ce card rack: in the Bakery, 
Park. 

Day, Austin G., Seymour, Connecticut. — Ordinary and indelible pencils 
in hard rubber cases. Bronze medal. 

Fairchild, L. W., & Co., ^ew York. — Gold pens; pen and pencil case's. 
Bronze medal. 

Forman, J. C, Cleveland, Ohio. — Specimens of work executed on the 
American Circular Border Ruling machine. 

Jessup & Moore, 27 :N^orth Sixth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 
Specimens of paper made from wood, straw, and hemp. Bronze 
medal. 

Matthews, W., New York. — Specimen of binding; the Colt ^' Memorial.'^ 

Murphy's, W. F., Sons, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Samples of blank 
books. Bronze medal. 

IS'ooNAN & McNab, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — Specimens of Avriting paper. 

Northampton Indelible Pencil Company, Northampton, Massachu- 
setts. — Indelible pencils for marking linens. 

Pierce, T. N., & Co., 427 North Eleventh street, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 
vania. — Slates. 

San Lorenzo Mills, San Lorenzo, California. — Paper. 

Secombe Manufacturing Company, 264 Broadway, New York. — 
Holt's improved ribbon hand stamps. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 8.— specimens OF DESIGN AND PLASTIC MOULDING APPLIED IN 

THE ORDINARY ARTS. 

EoGERS, J., New York. — Three groups of statuettes. 



260 PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [aROUP n. 

CLASS 9.— PROOFS AND APPARATUS OF PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Beer, Sigismund, 481 Broadway, 'New York. — Stereoscopic views. 

Bronze medal. 
Draper & Husted, Eidge avenue and Wallace street, Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania. — Photographs. 
Gardner, A., Washington, D. 0. — Photographs. 

GuTEKUNST, F., 704 Arch street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Photo- 
graphs. 
Lawrence & Houseworth, San Francisco, California. — Photographic 
and stereoscopic views, comprising 22 large photographs of the Yose- 
mite valley, Oalilorjiiaj 4 of the mammoth trees; 21 stereoscopic 
views of the Yc Semite \<i:icy ; 33 of the mammoth trees j 40 of San 
Francisco; 17 illustr:itiiti>; ^he art of hydraulic mining; 43 of placer 
mining; 158 of sc^eiiery in California, and 29 in ]N"evada. 
At the close of tlie iCx-positior., these views were donated by the exhibi- 
tors, through 11: connnissioner Irom the State of California, to various 
public societ^'os and institutions, including the Photographic Society of 
Paris, the J<iidin des Plantes, the Geological Society of France, and the 
British Museum. 
MoRVAN, A. G., (Heliotype Company,) 90 Fulton street, N&w York. — 

Photographic engraving. 
EuTHERFORD, L. M., New York. — Photograi)hs of the moon and solar 
spectrum. 
A remarkably large and fine photograph of the moon^s surface, and 
another of the solar spectrum showing the dark lines with great distinct- 
ness. A silver medal was awarded to Mr. Eutherford. 

YisCHER, Edward, San Francisco, California. — Six photographic 
albums, containing views of California and Washoe. 
The contributions of this exhibitor were duly invoiced and shipped 
from San Francisco, but failed to reach the exhibition, having been lost 
or mislaid in the transit. 

Watkins, C. E., San Francisco, California. — Photographic views of Cali- 
fornia. 
Being a comjDlete set, 30 or more, of the celebrated views of the Yose- 
mite valley and of the great trees of Mariposa county. These views are 
of large size, and were sent by the exhibitor framed in passe partout and 
ready to hang. The views of the Mariposa trees were framed in the 
wood of the trees appropriately carved. These photographs attracted 
much attention, and the jury awarded a bronze medal. 
WiLLARD & Co., 684 Broadway, New York. — Photographic camera 

tubes and lenses. Honorable mention. 
Williamson, C. H., 245 Fulton street, Brooklyn, New York.— Photo- 
graphs. 



CLASS X.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 261 



CLASS 10.— MUSICAL INSIRUMENTS. 

ChicivERIng & Sons, 'New York and Boston. — Pianos. Gold medal. 

(See a notice at the end of tMs class.) 
Gemunder, George, 174 East Mntli street, New York. — Stringed 

instruments. Bronze medal. 
LiNDEMANN & SoNS, 2 Leroy place, I^ew York. — Cycloid piano. (See 

a notice at the end of this class.) 
Mason & Hamlin, 596 Broadway, New York 5 Washington, D. 0., and 

Boston, Massachnsetts. — Cabinet organs. Silver medal. 
Metzerott, W. G., & Co., Washington, D. C. — Wind instruments. 
ScHREiBER Cornet Manufacturing Company, 99 Houston street, 

New York. — Wind instruments of brass and German silver. Bronze 

medal. 
Steinway & Sons, New York. — Pianos. Gold medal. (See a notice 

at the end of this class.) 
Wright, E. G., & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. — ^Wind instruments of 

brass and German silver. 
ZoiMERMANN, C. P., 238 North Second street, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 
vania. — Accordeons. 

NOTICE OF THE PIANOS EXHIBITED FROM THE UNITED STATES. 

The piano manufacturers of the United States may justly claim to 
have gained and preserved the first reputation in the world. The princi- 
pal feature upon which that reputation is founded is the introduction of 
the iron instead of the wooden frame, an improvement which has necessi- 
tated and been followed by various others. 

Until the third decade of the present century only European instru- 
ments foimd a ready market in America. It Avas soon foimd, however, 
that no wooden framed piano could long resist the extraordinary cUmatic 
changes of the country without requiring almost constant tuning and 
repairs. 

In the Exhibition of 1867, two firms more esi)eciaUy dispute the pahn 
of pre-eminence — Messrs. Steinway & Sons, of New York, and Messrs. 
Chickering & Sons, of New York and Boston. The jury readily acknow- 
ledged the remarkable qualities of the pianos of these two houses, and, 
pronouncing them both first-class products, gave equal awards to each, 
and the highest in its gift, viz : the gold medal. 

By a decree of the Emperor Mr. C. F. Chickering was created Chevalier 
of the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 

Each of these firms has, from time to time, taken out patents for improve- 
ments. Mr. Chickering claims to be the sole inventor of the circular scale, 
and to have made many other imiDrovements which have been rendered 
necessary from time to time by the development of musical science. 

Messrs. Steinway & Sons claim the application of various important 
improvements necessary for avoiding the thin and disagTeeably nasal 

18 UE 



262 ' PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP II. 

character of tone at first possessed by the iron frame, and for sui)plying 
that solidity of construction which the gradual extension of the musical 
capabilities of the piano rendered necessary. They claim also the intro- 
duction of over- stringing as well as the adoption of agraffes. It will not 
be presumed in this notice to judge of the respective merits of the 
improvements or the claims as to priority of the inventions of either 
party, or to attempt a technical particularization of them, but it may be 
said that the pianos of Messrs. Chickering & Sons and of Messrs. Stein- 
way & Sons, not forgetting the beautiful cycloid instrument manafactured 
and exhibited by Messrs. Lindemann & Sons, are unrivalled, and that while 
these instruments have a solidity of construction which withstands the 
deleterious iniluence of any climate, their depth, volume, power and deli- 
cacy of tone are fidly equal to all that can be required. 

CLASS U.— MEDICAL AND SURGICAL INSTRUMENTS AND APPARATUS. 

Abbey, Charles, & Sons, 230 Pear street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 
Dentist's gold foil. Bronze medal. 
The exhibition made by this firm sustains the well-deserved rei3utation 
of their manufacture. This gold foil has all the essential requisites for 
fiUing teeth, whether it is to be used in its ordinary state, or is to be 
rendered adhesive by heating.. It has great tenacity, coherence, and 
ductility, and is uniform in its thickness. 

Allen, John, & Son, 22 Bond street, ]^ew York. — Artificial teeth. Hon- 
orable mention. 
The pieces of continuous gTmas shown by the Messrs. Allen are very 
beautifid, and are striking imitations of nature, but beiag placed upon 
platinum i^lates they are rather heaws^ for comfort in using. 
Barnes, J. K., Surgeon General United States army, Washington, D. 0. — 
Plans of field hospitals, surgical instruments, and hospital appa- 
ratus of the United States army. In the Annex, ambulance, medi- 
cme wagon ; in the Park, hospital tent and furniture. Silver medal. 
Bates, E., 730 South Eighth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Instru- 
ments to cure stammering. Honorable mention. 
This extraordinary invention consists of a metallic tube which by a sim- 
ple arrangement can be attached to the upper part of the mouth, thus pre- 
venting the adhesion of the tongue, and allowing the air to pass. This is 
intended to assist in enunciating the lingual letters. For the labials another 
tube is provided, and prevents the lips closing against each other by ner- 
vous contractions. For the gutturals a small band is sui^plied with a 
screw, by Avhich a small plate can be forced against the glottis so as to keep 
it open, and give passage to the sounds produced by it. The neck-band 
is made of silk or satin, and has the appearance of an ordinary cravat. 
Beals, J. H., Boston, Massachusetts. — Iini)roved corset. 
CuMMiNGS, William, & Son, New York. — Model of a hospital car. 
Bronze medal ; in the international sanitary department. (See notice 
at the end of this catalogue.) 



CLASS XL] 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 263 



.Grand ALL, L., & Son, 470 Grand street, ]S"ew York. — Crutches. 

Davis, T. J., 64 East Fifteenth street, New York. — Artificial eyes. 

FiRTHENiCH, J., 7 Arcade huikling, Buffalo, I^Tew York. — Dermic instru- 
ments for cauterization. 

Howard, Dr. Benjamin, l^ew York. — Ambulance and relief material. 
Honorable mention ; in the international sanitary collection. (]N'o- 
ticed at the end of this catalogue.) 

Hudson, Dr. E. D., i^ew York. — Artificial limbs. A bronze medal was 
awarded. 
This exhibition was made in the international sanitary collection, and 
is noticed at the end of the catalogue. 

Johnson & Lund, 27 j^orth Seventh street, Philadelphia, Pennsylva- 
nia. — Artificial teeth. Bronze medal. 

Lincoln, M., 19 Green street, Boston, Massachusetts. — Artificial arms. 

Marks, A. A., 575 Broadway, ^ew York. — Artificial legs. 

Moody, Mrs. S. A., 12 East Sixteenth street. New York. — Abdominal 
corsets. 

Moore, J. G., New Holland, Pennsylvania. — Illustrations of teeth filling. 

Perot, T. Morris, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Medicine wagon. — 
Honorable mention ; in the international sanitary department. (No- 
ticed at the end of this catalogue.) 

Scott, J., Ocala, Florida. — Imi^roved trusses. 

Selpho. William, & Son, 516 Broadway, New York. — Artificial limbs. 

Honorable mention. 
Stockton, Samuel W., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Mineral teeth, 
with porcelain pivots and new system of transverse holes. Honor- 
able mention. 
Taylor, Charles F., 159 Fifth avenue. New York. — Therapeutic appa- 
ratus. Honorable mention. 
TiEMANN, George, & Co., New York. — Surgical instruments. A silver 

medal was awarded to Mr. George Tiemann as co-operator. 
USTICK, S., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Model of an apparatus for 

invalids. 
Weston, J. W., 706 Broadway, New York. — Artificial leg. 
White, Samuel S., 528 Arch street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 
Dentist's furniture and instruments. Artificial teeth. Gold medal. 
The teeth exhibited by Mr. White are of superior quality, and are re- 
markable imitations of natural teeth. Their smooth surface, semi-opaque 
and enamelled, has not that appearance of vitrification so disagreeable in 
most artificial teeth. Their forms are excellent, preserving not only the 
distinctive characters of the difterent teeth of the uj^per and lower jaw, 
but also of the right and left side of the moiith. Their tint is a mixture ot 
brown and yellow at the base, and a bright and clear enamel on the 
sharp part of the tooth. They are light and yet solid and strong. 
The '' block- teeth," with x)orcelain gums, also exliibited, are made* 



264 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP II. 

different sizes, so that any month may be fitted. Those intended for 
mounting in hardened caoutchouc have a i)ivot, with an expanded head, 
which i^re vents the teeth being pulled away from the base. 

Among the other objects is a case of dental instruments containing 
excellent forceps and a variety of other articles. All of these instru- 
ments are elaborate and ingenious, but they are injured by an excess of 
luxurious ornamentation which is misi)laced, for surely it is unnecessary 
and undesirable to encumber instruments intended for constant use with 
fine stones and other ornaments. 

The gold foil and spongy gold exhibited are excellent. The gold medal 
awarded to Mr. Wliite is only a just recompense for the excellent services 
rendered to the dental art by his house, which employs a large number 
of operatives, and has more than 300 agents in the United States and 
Europe. 

CLASS 12.— INSTRUMENTS OF PRECISION AND APPARATUS FOR INSTRUC- 
TION IN SCIENCES. 

Barlow, Milton, Eichmond, Kentucky.— Planetarium. Bronze medal. 
Bond, William, & Son, 17 Congress street, Boston, Massachusetts. — 

Astronomical clock, chronograph and chronometer. Silver medal. 
Clum, H. a., Eochester, 'New York. — Aelloscope. 
Cochrane, James, 64 West Tenth street, New York. — Apparatus for 

measuring water under pressure. 
Davidson, George, United States Coast Survey, Washington, D. C. — 

Improved sextant. Honorable mention. 
Darlino,, Brown & Sharpe, Providence, Ehode Island. — Graduated 

rules, squares, gauges, scales, &c. Silver medal. 
Edson, William, Boston, Massachusetts. — Hygrodeik for indicating the 

amount of moisture in the atmosphere. Honorable mention. 
MoRSEj S. E., & G. L. Harrisson, I^ew Jersey. — Bathometer j an instru- 
ment for measuring the depth of water. 
ToLLES E. F., Canastota, New York. — Microscope and telescope glasses j 

eyepieces and telescope. Silver medal. 
Wales, William, Port Lee, New Jersey. — Microscopic object glasses. 

Silver medal. 

CLASS 13.— GEOGRAPHY, COSMOGRAPHY, APPARATUS, MAPS, CHARTS, ETC. 

Bache, a. D., Hydrographic Bureau, sui^erintendent of the United States 
Coast Survey, Washington, D. C. — (Out of comi)etition.) — Nautical 
charts and api)aratus, deep-sea thermometers, gauging instruments. 

Johnson, A. J., 113 Pulton street. New York. — New illustrated Pamily 
Atlas. Bronze medal. 

JosLiN, G., Boston, Massachusetts. — Terrestrial globe. 

Knight, E. H., Washington, D. C. — War map of the United States. 

Tillmann, S. D., 12 Clinton i)lace, New York. — Tonometer. New system 
of chemical nomenclature. 



CLASS XIV, XV. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 265 



ScHEDLER, Joseph, Hudson City, l^ew Jersey. — Terrestrial globes. 

Bronze medal. 
Smith, S., & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. — Counting-room desk ; in Mr. 

Bacon's bakery in the Park. 
TJSTICK, S., 108 Fourth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Water 

cooler. 

&ROUP III. 

FUEOTTUEE AND OTHEE OBJECTS USED IN DWELLINGS. 

CLASS 14.— FURNITURE. 

Boston Chair Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Eocking-chair on a 

new plan. 
Boyd, John D., San Francisco, California. — Door of California wood. 

This door was a superb piece of workmanship, being most highly 
finished and polished so as to bring out the beautiful natural grain of 
the wood of the Madona or California laurel used in its construction. 
This wood has a yellowish color like satin wood, but is remarkable for 
the ease with which it may be stained so as to look like black wahiut, 
mahogany, or rosewood. 

Butler, J. L., St. Louis, Missouri. — Sofa-bedstead; in the Annex in the 
Park. 

English & Merrick, New Haven, Connecticut. — Folding chairs. 

Glass, Peter, Barton, Wisconsin. — Mosaic tables and table top. Hon- 
orable mention. 
These tables are said to contain no less than 96,321 jiieces of wood. 

Phelan & CoLLENDER, 63 to 69 Crosby street, New York. — BiUiard table. 
It is claimed that the cushions of this table combine elasticity and cor- 
rectness in the highest possibly degree. The lowness of the cushion 
also compared with the ball affords the player unusual advantages in 
regard to the facility and accuracy of the stroke, advantages unattainable 
except by the present improved method of constructing the cushions. 
With the ordinary construction a low cushion causes the baU to "jump.'' 

EoBiNSON, D. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — Model of an extension dining 
table 5 in M. Bacon's bakery in the Park. 

CLASS 15.— UPHOLSTERY AND DECORATIVE WORK. 

Shuster, John, 133 Court street, Brooklyn, New York. — Chimney pieces 
of American marbles. 
Three beautiful mantles, one of Tennessee marble, one of white marble 
from Vermont, and the other of the beautiful stalagmitic marble from 
Suisun, California. 

Boyd, John D., San Francisco, California. — Ornamental door of Cali- 
fornia wood. (See Class 14.) 



266 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP ill. 

CLASS 16.— FLINT AND OTHER GLASS, STAINED GLASS. 

Boston Silver Glass Company, Boston, Massachusetts.— Silvered 
glass table ware -, in the Eestaurant. 

Jones, Thomas, Centre and Franklin street, l^ew York. — Window sash 
of cut and ground glass, colored sidelights. 

Lyon. Jaivies B., & Co., Pittsburg, Pennsylvania.— Pressed glassware. 
Bronze medal. 

Pacific Glass Works, J. Taylor, president, San Francisco, California. — 
Glass bottles of various forms and colors designed for wines, pre- 
serves, pickles, sauces, &c., manufactured in California from sand 
obtained upon the bay of Monterey. 
These samples, which compared favorably with any in the Exhibition, 

were donated, at the close, to the museum at Sevres. 

SCHWITTER, Anthon, 177 Broadway, I^ew York. — Glassware engraved 
by a mechanical process. 

CLASS 17.— PORCELAIN, FAIENCE, AND OTHER POTTERIES. 
BoCH, William, Bochtown, Newtown, 'New York. — Porcelain ware. 
Eamsay, G. M., 23 Courtlandt street, ]N"ew York. — Air-tight jars for pre- 
serving imrposes, &c. 

CLASS 18.— CARPETS, HANGINGS, AND OTHER FURNITURE TISSUES. 

Chipman, George W., & Co., 119 Milk street, Boston, Massachusetts. — 
Carpet lining. Honorable mention. 

TowNSEND, W^ISNER H., 20 Eeade street, I^ew York. — Samples of oil- 
cloth. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 19.— PAPER HANGINGS. 

BiGELOW, J. E., Boston, Massachusetts. — Paper-hangings. 
Christy, Constant & Co., I^ew York. — Paper-hangings. 
Graves, E., & Co., I^ew York. — Paper^angings. 

Howell & Brother, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Paper-hangings. 
Honorable mention. 

CLASS 20.— CUTLERY. 
BiGGS, C, 57 Beekman street, Kew York. — Pocket cutlery from the man- 
ufactory of Booth Brothers, Newark, Kew Jersey. 
Shaver, A. G., New Haven, Connecticut. — Erasers and pencil-sharp- 
eners. 

CLASS 21.— GOLD AND SILVER PLATE. 

Meriden Britannia Company, West Meriden, Connecticut. — Plated 
table ware ; in the Eestaurant. 

Tiffany & Co., 550 and 552 Broadway, 'Ne^y York. — Ornamental plate 
and silver-ware in various styles of chasing; reduction of the 
"America" of Crawford, decorating the cupola of the Capitol at 
Washington; models of the steamers ''Commonwealth" and ''Yan- 
derbilt. " Bronze medal. 



CLASS xxii-xxiv.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 267 

The hull of the model of the Yanderbilt is fashioned iii frosted or 
dead silver, with a burnished streak or gunwale. The paddles are of 
burnished silver, tipped with gold; the tops and bottoms of the funnels 
are of gold; the deck is formed of polished silver; the quarter boats of 
gold. The just proportion of every x)art is preserved in the model, and 
every detail, even of the minute parts, has been carefully wrought in silver 
or gold. 

CLASS 22. -ARTISTIC BRONZES, ARTISTIC CASTINGS OF VARIOUS KINDS, 
AND CHASED METAL ORNAMENTS. 

Tucker, Hiram, & Co., 59 John street, Kew York. — Iron ornaments 
bronzed by new process. Silver medal. 
These objects, consisting of clock stands, vases, lamps, chandeliers, 
brackets, &c., were much admired. 

CLASS 23.— CLOCKS AND CLOCK WORKS. 

Kew Haven Clock Company, ]S"ew Haven, Connecticut. — Clocks. Hon- 
orable mention. 

FouRNiER, S., 60 Eoyal street, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Clocks and 
clock works. Silver medal. 
This exhibition consisted of several large and accurately made clocks 

for chiu-ches and public buildings. They were set up and running during 

the Exhibition, and the works were in fall view in an alcove or enclosed 

space reserved for them. 

CLASS 24.— APPARATUS AND METHODS OF WARMING AND LIGHTING. 

Beidler, J. H., Lincoln, Illinois. — Hydro-caloric light. 

Clogston, T. S., & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. — Steam radiator for heat- 
ing buildings. 

Gouges Yentilating Company, 254 Broadway, IsTew York. — Atmos- 
Xiheric ventilator. 

Haskins, D. Gr., Cambridge, Massachusetts. — Gas furnace. 

Ives, J., & Co., 18 Beekman street, ISTew York. — Kerosene and petro- 
leum lamps and chandeliers. 

Markland, T. J., 835 Ellsworth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylania. — Coal 
scuttle. 

Mueller, J. U., Detroit, Michigan. — Imi)roved stove handles. 

O'Neil, a., Portsmouth, Ohio. — Sheet metal stove boiler. 

Pease, F. S., Buffalo, IN'ew York. — Gas apparatus. 

Pratt & Wentworth, 89 I^^orth street, Boston, Massachusetts. — Cook- 
ing stove and utensils. Bronze medal. 

Tucker, H., & Co., 59 John street, New York. — Lamps and chandeliers. 

USTiCK, S., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Model of an improved street 
lamp. 

Whitely, Edward, Boston, Massachusetts. — Cooking range and appa- 
ratus, in the American restaurant. 



268 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP IV. 

CLASS 25.— PERFUMERY. 

Tallman & Collins, Janesville, Wisconsin. — Perfumery. Honorable 

mention. 
WRiaiiT, E. & Gr. A., 624 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — 

Toilet soap and perfumery. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 26.-FANCY ARTICLES, TOYS, BASKET WORK. 

Blood GOOD, Annie De Etta, 127 Mnth avenue, l^ew York. — Wax 
flowers. 

Hauxhuest, Caroline, Eahway, 'New Jersey. — Ornaments of skele- 
ton leaves. 

ELaldenbero & Son, New York. — Meerschaum pipes. Honorable men- 
tion. 

Lachaume, J., 163 Prince street, New York. — Eustic work, baskets, 
stands, &c. 

Macdaniel, Miss F., ISTew York. — ISTatural flowers with color preserved. 

Smith, Mde. E. W., West Medford, Massachusetts. — Wax flowers, fruits, 
&c. 

GROUP IV. 

CLOTHIKG, (mCLUDmO TISSUES,) A:^^D OTHEE OBJECTS 
WOEN OIST THE PEESO^. 

CLASS 27.-C0TT0N YARN, THREADS AND TISSUES OF COTTON. 

Bell Factory, Huntsville, Alabama. — Cotton fabrics. Honorable men- 
tion. 

Clark Thread Company, Gr. A. Clark, treasurer, I^ewark, ]N'ew Jersey. — 
Cotton and cotton yarns. Silver medal. 

Groll & Grubbs, Chicago, Illinois. — Cotton batting. " 

Hadley Company, Holyoke, Massachusetts. — Spool cotton. Bronze 
medal. 

ISTew York Mills, Walcott & Campbell, 57 Worth street, I^ew York. — 
Fine muslins. Silver medal. 

Slater, S., & Son, Webster Woollen Mills, Webster, Massachusetts. — 
Jaconets and cotton fabrics. Bronze medal. 

CLA.SS 28.— YARN AND TISSUE^ OF LINEN, HEMP, ETC. 

Harvey, W., 84 Maiden Lane, New York. — Flax, hemp, cotton, linen, 

and paper twine and cordage. 
Hall Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Cordage 

made on Bazin's twisting machine. 

CLASS 29.-C0MBED._W00L AND WORSTED YARNS AND FABRICS. 

(No exhibitors.) 



CLASS XXX, XXXI.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 269 

CLASS 30.— YARN AND TISSUES OF CARDED WOOL. 

Hayes, John L., secretary National Association of Wool Manufacturers, 
75 Summer street, Boston, Massachusetts. — Series of woollen fabrics, 
manufactured by the WasMngton Mills, situated in Lawrence, Massa- 
cliusetts. Silver medal. 
None of the pieces exhibited were made expressly for the exhibition, 
but were specimens of the daily products of the establishment. They 
were forwarded with a statement that they were intended to show the 
average styles and quality of the woollen goods then being made in the 
United States. To each sample a card was affixed showing the selling 
price in the United States. The goods exhibited consisted of eight varieties 
of shawls ; carriage rugs j one piece of each of the following goods : fancy 
shirting, ]!:^evada plaid, Italian cloth, American poplin, blue Esquimaux 
coating, black doeskin, tricot, Moscow beaver, diagonal coating, A. W. 
braid. Union broad beaver, Jansen silk mixture, blue, black and white 
silk mixtiu^e, Paris indigo blue coating, extra blue Washington coating, 
repellant cloaking, fancy cassiiiiere ; and three pieces of each of the fol- 
lowing : sackings, mixed Scotch tweed. 

Klaitder, R., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Dyed and printed zephyr. 
Mission Woollen Mills, San Francisco, California, D. McLennan, super- 
intendent j Lazard Freres, agent. — Woollen goods, comprising a large 
assortment of blankets, travelling shawls, cassimeres and flannels, all 
made from inu^e California wool at the comj)any's mills at the Mission, 
San Francisco. 
The blankets exhibited were remarkably fine and soft, of large size, 
and unrivalled in quality. The assortment contained blankets for family 
use, for miners, for the army, and for Indians. The family blankets were 
86 by 94 inches in size, and weighed from 10 to 11 J pounds each. The 
miners' blankets were 62 by 84 inches, and weighed from 9J to 10 J pounds 
each. Those for the army were 66 by 89 inches, and weighed 6 i)ounds 
each. 

The cassimeres were mixed, i3laid, and plain; and the flannels were 
both i)lain and colored. The collection contained a sample of the peculiar 
shaggy blanketing used in sluices by miners to catch and hold the fine 
particles of gold and sulphiu-ets of iron flowing from stamp-batteries. A 
bronze medal was awarded for this display. 
Shields, J., Davenport, Iowa. — Woollen goods. 

Slater, S., & Son, Slater Woollen Mills, Webster, Massachusetts. — 
Woollen fabrics, broadcloths, doeskins, castors and moskowa. Silver 
medal. 
STURSBERa, H., 97 Reade street, New York. — Beaver cloth. Bronze 
medal. 

CLASS 3L-SILK AND TISSUES OF SILK. 

Williams Silk MANUFACTURiNa Company, 469 Broadway, New York. — 
Silk twist for sewing machines. Honorable mention. 



270 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP IV. 

CLASS 32.— SHAWLS, ETC. 

The WASHiNaTON Mills, Lawrence, Massacliusetts. — Shawls. Honor- 

able mention. 
ToRRENCE, Mrs. J. S., Ill Broadway, New York. — Worsted Affghan. 

CLASS 34.— HOSIERY, UNDER-CLOTHING, AND MINOR ARTICLES. 

CoHN, M., 147 Chambers street, New York. — Crinolines of various descrip- 
tions. 

Moody, S. N., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Two dress shirts. 

Mount City Paper Collar Company, St. Louis, Missouri.— Paper 
collars. * 

Sachse, p., & Sons, Pine street, Philadelphia. — Dress shirts. Bronze 
medal. 

CLASS 35.— CLOTHING FOR MEN, WOMEN, AND CHILDREN. 

BouvET, J., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Hats. 

Burt, E. C, 27 Park Eow, New York. — Machine- sewed boots and shoes. 
Silver medal. 

Demorest, Mrs. Ellen, Broadway, New York. — Corsets, patterns, &c. 

Eelmeden, J. K., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Boots and shoes made from 
alligator leather. 

Linthicum, W. O., 726 Broadway, New York. — Spring overcoat. Hon- 
orable mention. 

Nicely, H. C, 34 West Baltimore street, Baltimore, Maryland. — Hats 
and caps. 

Pacalin, O., 3 Amity Place, New York. Metallic sole fastening for boots. 

Whitney Brothers & Co., Chicago, Illinois. — Boots. 

WiNDLE & Co., New York. — Boots and shoes with wooden soles and 
heels, and flexible shanks. 

Zallee, John C, 110 Olive street, St. Louis, Missouri. — Erock coat, 
■ black doeskin pantaloons, and silk vest. Honorable mention. 

CLASS 36.— JEWELRY AND ORNAMENTS. 

(No exhibitors.) 

class 37.— portable arms. 

Arm Manufacturing Industry^ of the United States. 

It Avas found so difficult to decide upon the relative merits of the porta 
ble fire-arms exhibited in the American section, and their superiority 
was recognized as so indisputable, that the international jury, as acom- 
j)liment, and at the same time for the purpose of avoiding wliat might 
be construed as an invidiims distinction, voted a gold medal to ''•The 
Arm Manufacturing Industry of the United States." 
Berdan, Colonel H., 30 Bond street, New York. — Breech-loading rifle. 
BoNZANO, A., Detroit, Mi(^higan. — Cannon-nmzzle spikers. 



CLASS XXXVII.] 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 271 



Colt's Fire-arms Manufacturing Company, Hartford, Connecticut. — 

Colt's lire-arms ; a Catling gun. Silver medal. (See Gatling gun.) 
Ferriss, G. H., Utica, 'New York. — Wrought-iron breecli-loading rifled 

cannon j target perforated by it. 
Gatling, E. J., Indianapolis, Indiana. — Improved battery gun. 

This is a breech-loading repeating gun, in which all the operations of 
loading^ firing, and getting rid of the debris of the case of the cartridge are 
preformed by a simi^le rotary movement. It is fed with metallic Cartridges, 
each of the largest containing 15 musket baUs and one conical ball, thus 
throwing 16 projectiles at CA^ery discharge. Twenty discharges can be 
made in eight seconds. Among other advantages may be mentioned the 
absence of any gas escaping by the breech j no recoil tending to divert 
the aim ; great accuracy of aim, and rapidity of firing ; and, lastly, light- 
ness. This gun was exhibited by the Colt Fire-arms Maimfacturing 
Compalny, and a silver medal Avas awarded' to this company for its manu- 
factures. 

Jenks, a., & Son, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Fire-arms, and x)arts of 

same manufactured by machinery. 
Missouri, State of. — Indian weai>ons, curiosities &c. 
Providence Tool Company, J. B. Anthony, president, Providence, 

Ehode Island. — Peabody's breech-loading fire-arms. Silver medal. 
Eemington, E., & Son, Ilion, ^ew York. — Breech-loading fire-arms. 

Silver medal. 
EoBERTS, General B. F., Washingi^on, D. C. — Breech-loading rifle. 

Descrii^tion : calibre, .58 inch ; distance from muzzle to face of breech- 
lock, when closed, 37 inches; length of chamber, 1.25 inch. The chamber 
has a uniform tai^er for its entire length ; maximum diameter, .61 inch, 
minimum diameter, .58 inch ; receiver, 2 inches in length ; breech block, 
.75 inch wide. Breech-block and all its appendages assembled from one 
piece, 5 inches in length. 

The musket presented is of the United States '^ Springfield" pattern, 
made by machinery. The breech-loading parts, five in number, were 
made by hand, and constitute '' the Eoberts breech-loading attachment. 
The first piece is an iron breech frame or receiver, into which the barrel, 
ha^dng been cut off at proper point, is firmly screwed. This receiver is 
imbedded in the stock in the iflace of the old breach j}m. The barrel is 
cut off about one inch in front of the cone, and a male screw cut, reach- 
ing nearly to the rear sight of the barrel. The breech block is inserted 
through this receiver, and supported against the rear end on a semi- 
circular shoulder, forming the back of receiver, the centre around which 
this semi-circle is described being in the prolongation of the axis of the 
barrel. The rear of the breech block is turned to fit with exactness this 
semicircle, and is played around it as a fulcrum. The cheeks of the 
receiver sui^port the breech block laterally. When the breech block is 
in place in the receiver it forms a curved lever, the handle projecting 



272 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP IV. 

backward, and it tlieu is moved about the solid abutment of the receiver, 
instead of being pivoted by any system of points or pins, thus affording 
great solidity and strength. 

The forward end of the breech block has a semicircular groove cut trans 
versely through it, for the puri)ose of receivmg a corresponding tenon 
formed on a block of steel, termed the recoil plate. The front face of this 
block is flat, so that when in position it fits squarely against the ji^ertical 
face of the chamber and the rear end of the cartridge case. A small space 
is left between the tenon on the rear of this block and the front surface of 
the breech block above the transverse groove, to admit of a slight rock- 
ing motion of recoil plate, so that it will descend to expose the breech 
of the barrel and admit the cartridge into the chamber. This small open 
space permits the recoil plate to descend perpendicidarly when the rear 
of the lever is raised, until the top of the i^late passes below the axis of 
the barrel, after which it swings with the arc of the circle on the rear 
end of the receiver. Wlien the rear of the lever is raised the recoil plate 
ascends to its position by the exact reverse motion, up to the axis of the 
barrel on a circular motion, and afterward to close the chamber, ascend- 
ing vertically and closing squarely against the head of the cartridge 
case and the vertical face of the chamber. 

The firing pin is located on the right side of the breech block, and 
runs through both this block and the recoil plate, directed to the centre 
for centre-fire cartridges and grooved into the sides for rim-fire cartridges. 
It s so set on a shoulder that the force of the blow of the hammer can- 
not drive it a greater distance than is necessary to insiu'e fire. 

The retractor is a curved lever, fixed on the left side of the chamber, 
with one arm behind the flange of the cartridge case and the other 
operating in a vertical groove on the left side of the recoil plate. ^Tien 
the breech lever is raised and the recoil plate descends, the arm in the 
groove is not touched until the top of this plate reaches the bottom of 
the chamber, the shoulder at the upper end of the groove then strikes 
the lever and ejects the cartridge case. 

Smith & Wesson, Springfield, Massachusetts. — Fire-arms and metallic 
cartridges. Silver medal. 

Spencer Repeating Eifle Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Spencer 
rifles. Breech-loading, capable of being fired seven times in twelve 
seconds. Silver medal. 

United States Sanitary Commission. — Camp material, in the inter- 
national sanitary dej)artmeut. (See a notice at the end of this cata- 
logue.) Honorable mention. 

Windsor Manufacturing Company, Windsor, Vermont. — Ball's pat- 
ent repeating fire-arms. Silver medal. 

Whipple, H. B., Faribault, Minnesota. — Arms, curiosities, &c., of the 
Ojibwa and Dakota tribes. 



CLASS XXXVIII-XL. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 273 



CLASS 38.— ARTICLES FOR TRAVELLING AND FOR ENCAMPMENT. 

Baird, H. S., Green Bay, Wisconsin. — Indian curiosities. 

Collins, Mrs. L., Xew Orleans, Louisiana. — Embroidered flags in tlie 
Louisiana cottage. 

Meigs, M. E., Quartermaster General in the United States army Wash- 
ington, D. C, (out of comi)etition.) In the park. — Material in use in 
the United States army for transportation, clothing, and equipment 
in camp and in garrison. 

No YES, J. H., Oneida, I^ew York. — Traveller's lunch bag. 

Paddock, W. S., Albany, New York. — Fastenings for trunks, arranged 
on a model trunk. 

Pierce, Carlos, Boston, Massachusetts. — The Fremont army tent, in 
the Park. 
This tent is so constructed that during rain storms, when the canvass 

shrinks from wetting, it can be lowered a little from the inside instead 

of loosening the pegs outside to provide for the shrinkage. 

Pull AN, K. B., Cincinnati, Ohio. — Model tents. 
Short, J., Salem, Massachusetts. — Army knapsack. 

CLASS 39.— TOYS AND GEWGAWS. 

Mueller, T. U., Detroit, Michigan. — Toy puzzle. 

GROUP V. 

PEODUCTS, EAW A:N^D MANUFACTUEED, OF MIKING LN^DUS- 
TEY, FOEESTEY, ETC. 

CLASS 40.— MINING AND METALLURGY. 

The display of mineral productions of all kinds from the vast metallif- 
erous regions of the United States was one of the most imi^ortant features 
of the Exposition. The most distant States were represented there by 
samples of their ores and minerals. California, Nevada, Idaho, Colorado, 
Aj?izona, Montana, Dakota, New Mexico, Oregon, and Washington, with 
a united area equal to the whole of Eiu-ope, nearly all sent specimens 
indicative of their marvellous resources in gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, 
coal, petroleum, and other minerals. The most prominent collections 
were from California, Colorado, and Nevada. 

AlabA]\ia, State of. — Minerals from that State. 

Arkansas, State of. — Minerals from that State. 

Avery, E. D., Petite Anse, Louisiana. — Eock salt. 

Baltimore and Cuba Sivielting and Mining Company, C. Levering, 

president, Baltimore, Maryland. — Ingot and sheet copper. Bronze 

medal. 
Barr & Cox, Beloit, Wisconsin. — Hammers and hatchets. 
Barr, J., Licking county, Ohio. — Minerals, samples of coal. 



274 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. ^^ j^^^p ^ 

BiGrELOW, H., Boston, Massachusetts. — Kocks, ores, and minerals from 
Micliigan. Silver medal. 
This collection included a variety of specimens of native copi^er, from 
Lake Superior, and of the various interesting materials which accom- 
I)any it. 
BiGLEY, ^. J., Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Samples of coal, limestone, fire 

clay. 
Blake, William P., California, Commissioner from the State to the 
Exposition. — A collection of the ores and minerals found in Califor- 
nia and the adjoining States and Territories, intended to illustrate 
the mineral resources of the Pacific coast region of the United States. 
Silver medal. 
This collection contained over 300 specimens of good size, taken from 
the principal gold-bearing veins of California, and from the copper, quick- 
silver, lead, and iron veins. The borax, salt, j)etroleum, and building 
materials were also sho\ATi. All the specimens were properly classified 
and labelled. 
Burt, J., Detroit, Michigan. — Iron ores, iron, steel, samples of iron made 

from Lake Sui^erior specular and magnetic ores. 
Chester Iron Company, (J. B. Taft,) Chester, Massachusetts. — 
Emery and minerals from Chester, Massachusetts. Silver medal. 
This was a very interesting and instructive suite of specimens of the 
massive emery stone and the minerals which are usually associated with 
it, together with the crushed and prepared emery and the emery cloths and 
papers. The presence of emery at this locality was discovered by Dr. 
Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, when giving some samples of iron ore 
found there a scientific examination. This important service was recog- 
nized by the class jury, and a bronze medal was awarded to Dr. Jackson 
as co-operator, for ^'Discovery of emery in the United States." 

Childs, T., «& Co., Hartford, Connecticut. — Skates. 
CoNNELL, S. G., & Son, Buffalo, New York. — Pure white lead. 
Dixon, J., & Co., Jersey City, New Jersey. — Plumbago crucibles and 

stove polish. 
DouOLAS, J. L., 158 Broadway, New York. — Minerals from the Terri- 
tory of Nevada. 
Douglass Axe Manufacturing Co3IPAny, D. D. Dana, treasm^er, 

Boston, Massachusetts. — Edge tools. Silver medal. 
Douglass Manufacturing Company, 70 Beekman street, New York. — 

Edge tools. Bronze medal. 
Elsberg, Dr. L., 123 West Eifteenth street, New York. — Prepared peat 

fuel. IIoiioral)le mention. 
Gau.jot, B. C. E., Tamaqua, Pennsylvania. — Samples of coal, rocks,and 

iron ores. 
GooDENOUGH HoRSESiiOE COMPANY, W. C. Colgate, president, 1 Dey 

street. New York. — Horseshoes. Honorable mention. 



CLASS XL.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 275 

Gould, J. D., Boston, Massachusetts. — Mica. Honorable mention. 

This was a fine assortment of mica, in large, clear sheets, suitable for 
stoves^ lanterns, and for roofing. 

Green, Ja^ies D., Cambridge, Massachusetts. — A column of Winooski 

marble, (Vermont.) 
Haulldie, a. S., & Co., San Francisco, California. — Wire rope. 

Samples of the various sizes of wire ropes, cables round and flat for min- 
ing pmi)Oses, sash cords of various sizes, &c., &c., all manufactured in 
San Francisco, and proving great skill in this art. These samples, at the 
close of the Exposition, were donated to the Museum of Arts and Man- 
ufactures. 

Haeris, J., Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin. — Samples of native copper from 
Lake Superior. 

HERRma, Farrell & Sherman, 254 Broadway, Kew York. — Crystal- 
lized iron — '^Franklinite.'" 

Illinois, State of. — Collection of minerals, building stones, fossils. 
Silver medal. 

Iowa, State of. — Specimens of the mineral ju^oductions of that State. 

Jackson, J. H., 155 Broadway, ]N"ew York. — Minerals and fossils! Hon- 
orable mention. 

Kansas, State of. — Specimens of the mineral productions of that State. 

Kase, S. p., Danville, Pennsylvania. — Coal from the Beaver Creek Coal 
Comi)any. 

Kasson, a. C, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — Patent auger bits. 

Balance & Grosjean, 273 Pearl street, 'New York. — House furnishing 
hardware. Chairs, in the Annex. Honorable mention. 

McCoRMiCK, J. J., Williamsburg, IsTew York. — Skates. Honorable men- 
tion. 

Merritt, W. H., North Anthracite Coal-field, Luzerne county, Penn- 
sylvania. — Anthracite coal. 

Minnesota, Territory of. — Collection of minerals from that Territory. 

Missouri, State of. — Minerals from that State. 

Nevada, Territory of. — Silver ores. Silver medal. 

This was a splendid display of rich ores of silver from eastern Nevada, 

collected chiefly by a committee appointed by the citizens, and represented 

at the Exposition by David E. Buel, esq. Many of the masses were over 

18 inches in diameter, and were from the newly-discovered districts in the 

southeastern portion of the State. 

New Jersey Zinc Company, G. A. Bell, president, 64 Maiden Lane, New 
York. — Specimens of ores, and products manufactured therefrom. 
This series contained masses of the red zinc ore, of the Franklinite, 
and of the silicate of zinc, aU from the company's mines at Stirling Hill 
and at Mine Hill, in Sussex county. New Jersey. These ores are worked 
chiefly into oxide of zinc for paints and into pig iron, known as Frank- 
linite iron. 



276 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP Y. 

Park Brothers & Co., Black Diamond Steel Works, Pittsburg, Penn- 
sylvania. — Cast-steel edge tools. 
A very interesting display of superior tools, for wliich a silver medal 

was awarded. 

Patterson, S., Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania. — Anthracite coal. 
This was an enormous single block of coal weighing three and a half 

tons, taken from the colliery of W. Johns. It occupied a prominent 

place in the mineral collection, and a bronze medal was awarded. (See 

following entry.) 

Pennsylvania, State of. — ^Anthracite coal. (S. Patterson's.) From 
colliery of W. Johns, as noted above. Bronze medal. 

Portage Lake S3IELTING Works, E. D. Brigham, treasurer, Boston, 
Massachusetts. — Ingots and cakes of copper. Bronze medal. 

Prentice, F., l^evada.— Ores from ^N^evada. 

PiGtNE, Dr. J. B., San Francisco, California. — Collection of minerals from 
California. Silver medal. 
This was a very complete collection of ores of gold, silver, copper, lead, 

iron, quicksilver, &c., &c., from the principal mines of the Pacific States, 

all neatly classified, labelled and catalogued, and intended for the collec- 
tion of the Ucole Imperiale des Mines at Paris. 

Piont^er and Inskip Mill and Mining Company, D. H. Temple, sec- 
retary, 8 Pine street, New York. — Minerals and silver ores from 
Nevada. 

Band ALL, Saiviuel H., New York. — Specimens of mica, feldspar, beryl, 
quartz, &c. Bronze medal. 

KoBiNSON, E., & Son, Boston, Massachusetts. — House hardware, in Mr. 
Bacon's bakery. Park. 

Saferay, C, 26 East Fom^th street. New York. — Agglomerated coal. 

Shaub, G., superintendent of the Southern Porcelain Comj)any, Augusta, 
Georgia.— Kaolin. 

Shelton Company, Birmingham, Connecticut. — Iron, copper, and tinned 
tacks. 

Shuster, J., 133 Court street, Brooklyn, New York. — Samples of Cal- 
ifornia, Tennessee, New York, and Vermont marbles. 

Sibley, F. K., Auburndale, Massachusetts. — Samples of emery and 
crocus cloths. 

Texas Chrome Mining Company, Texas, Pennsylvania. — Chromic iron 
ore in large masses as taken from the quarry. 

Thomas Iron Works, Hokendauqua, Pennsylvania. — Iron and iron ores. 

Utah, Territory of. — Minerals. 

Waldridge, W. D., 51 Exchange Place, New York. — Samples of gold, 
silver, tin, and copper from Idaho. Large masses of silver ore fi'om 
the Poorman lode in Idaho. These blocks contained large quantities 
of ruby silver ore. Gold medal. 

Warner, G. F. & Co., New Haven, Connecticut. — Malleable iron castings. 



CLASS XLi,XLii.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 277 

A Yery great variety of small objects, cliiefly carriage hardware, all 
neatly arranged upon a large square tablet. Bronze medal. 
West Virginia, State of. — Minerals from tliat State ; building stone. 
Wetherbee, Sherman & Co., Port Henry, [New York. — Magnetic iron 

ore, iron. 
Wharton, Joseph, Pliiladelpliia, Pennsylvania. — Ores and metals, 

nickel, cobalt, zinc. Honorable mention. 
Whitney, J. P., Boston, Massacliusetts. — Grold and silver ores and min- 
erals from Colorado Territory. Gold medal. 
A very large and brilliant collection of the i^yritic gold-bearing ores of 
Coloradb, accompanied by maps of the region, photographs, and statis- 
tics, published in three languages. 

Wilkinson, A. S., Pawtucket, Ehode Island. — Horseshoes. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Minerals, ores, building stones, and metals from 
Wisconsin. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 4L— PRODUCTS OF THE FOREST. 

Andrews, Harris & Co., St. Louis, Missouri. — Black moss from Lou- 
isiana 

Boyd, John D., San Francisco, California. — Samples of cabinet woods 
from California. 
This exhibition consisted of masses of the trunk of the madrona, and 

of bundles of veneers cut from it, also of a series of panels veneered, 

stained, and polished, showing a grain of remarkable beauty. 

Oahter, G. W., 98 Hudson street, ^N'ew York. — Fret, scroll, and orna- 
■ mental sawing. 

Edwards, D., Little Genesee, ^ew York. — Specimens of wood and clap- 
boards. 

Hall, E., Athens, Illinois. — Collection illustrating the botany of Illinois. 

Kansas, State of. — Specimens of wood. Honorable mention. 

Leavitt & HuNNEWELL, Bostou, Massachusetts. — Prepared peat fael. 

Mears, C, & Co., Chicago, Illinois. — Shingles. 

Missouri, State of. — Specimens of wood from Missouri. 

Paul, J. F., & Co., 441 Tremont street, Boston, Massachusetts. — Wood 
mouldings, oval frames, specimens of wood. Honorable mention. 

Persac, a., ^N^ew Orleans, Louisiana. — Illustrations of American forests. 

Utah, Territory of. — Specimens of wood. 

Wisconsin, State of.— Samples of wood. 

CLASS 42.— PRODUCTS OF HUNTING AND FISHERIES, AND UNCULTIVATED 

PRODUCTS. 

Bell, J. G., 335 Broadway, i^ew York. — Stuffed birds. 

GuNTHER, C. G., «& Sons, 502 Broadway, I^Tew York. — Stuffed animals. 

Silver medal. 
Illinois, State of. — Stuffed game birds from the Chicago Academy 

of Sciences. 
19 u E 



278 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group V. 

Kansas, State of. — Furs, antlers, and skins. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Furs, antlers, and skins. 

CLASS 43.— AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS (NOT USED FOR FOOD) OF EASY 

PRESERVATION. 

Alabama, State of. — Samples of cotton. Silver medal and honorable 
mention. 

BOURGEOIS, E., 'Ne^v Orleans, Louisiana. — Perrique tobacco. Honorable 
mention. 

Garoll, J. W., Lyncliburg, Yirginia.— Tobacco. Bronze medal. 

CozzENS, Frederic S., 73 Warren street, 'New York. — Cigars. . Honor- 
able mention. 

Delpit, a., & Co., 'NG^Y Orleans, Louisiana. — Snuff and smoking tobacco. 
Silver medal. 

Diehl, I. S., 80 Broadway, New York. — Specimens of Angora wool from 
different parts of the United States and articles manufactured from 
the same. 

Humphries, John C, parish of Eapides, Louisiana. — Samples of cotton. 
Bronze medal. 

Illinois Central Railroad Company. — Hemp, flax, cotton, and to- 
bacco. Silver medal. 

Johnson, C. G., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Specimen of cotton 5 in the 
Louisiana cottage. 

Johnson, O., Galba, Illinois. — Sam]3les of broom corn. 

Kansas, State of. — Agricultural products from Kansas. 

Lehman, ^N'ongass & Co.— ISTew Orleans, Louisiana. — W^ool. • 

LiLiENTHAL, C. H., 221 Washington street, ]^ew York. — Snuif and to- 
bacco. Bronze medal. 

Maginnis, a. a., IS'ew Orleans, Louisiana. — Cotton seeds. • 

Mey^er, Yictor, parish of Concordia, Louisiana. — Sample of cotton. 
Gold medal. 

Missouri, State of. — Cotton, hemp, cashmere wool. 

Montagne & Carlos, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Black moss for uj)liol- 
sterers. Honorable mention. 

Richard Richards, Racine, Wisconsin. — Specimen of wool. Bronze 
medal. 

St. Louis Lead & Oil Co. — Seed and seed oils. 

Sarrazin, J. R., ]^ew Orleans, Louisiana. — Samples of tobacco. Bronze 
medal. 

SCHERR, T., San Francisco, California. — Bale of hops. 
These hops were grown on the grounds of Wilson Flint, esq., in the 

Sacramento valley, and were of superior quality. Samples of them were 

freely distributed during the exhibition. 

TAMBOuiiY, A., parish of St. James, Louisiana. — Samples of tobacco. 
Bronze medal. 

Townsend, J., Edisto Island, South Carolina.— Superfine sea island 
cotton. 



i 



CLASS XLIV.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 279 

Trager, Louis, Black Hawk Point, Louisiana. — Samples of cotton. Gold 

medal. 
Williams, Thomas C, & Co., Danville, Virginia. — Samples of tobacco. 

Bronze meclal. 
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. — Specimens of wool and of 

seed oils. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 44. -chemical AND PHARMACEUTICAL PRODUCTS. 

Baecociv, James F., Boston, Massaclmsetts. — Eosin oil. Bronze medal. 
Becker, H. C, ]^ew York. — Extracts for culinary use. • 

Belmont Oil Company, 333 Market street, Philadelpliia, Pennsyl- 
vania. — Crude and refined petrolemn, benzine, gazoline. Bronze 

medal. 
Brandon Kaolin and Paint Company, J. W. Prime, president, Bran- 
don, Vermont. — Specimens of paints. Honorable mention. 
Butler, T. S., Cincinnati, Ohio. — Oil blacking. 
California, State of. — Oils. Sami)les of petroleum, botli crude and 

refined, from localities in various parts of the State. 
The refined oils were from the establishments of Messrs. Hayward & 
Coleman, Stanford Brothers, and Charles Stott, in San Francisco. 
Chicago Glue Works, Chicago, Blinois. — Samples of glue. 
Day, Austin G., SejTQioiu-, Connecticut. — Samples of hard, semi-hard, 

and soft India-rubber, and artificial rubber. Honorable mention. 
DiEHL, J. S., 80 Broadway, ISTew York. — Petroleum 5 silicated copper. 
DuNDAS, Dick & Co., 110 Eeade street, Xew York. — Capsulated medicines. 
Fries, Alexander, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Flavoring extracts. Honorable 

mention. 
Glen Cove Starch Manufacturing Company, W. Duryea, secretary, 

166 Fulton street, N^ew York. — Maize starch. 
Glidden & Williams, Boston, Massachusetts. — Soluble Pacific guano. 
Hale & Parshall, Lyons, ^ew York. — Oil of peppermint. 
Herzberg, L, & Brother, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Chronometer 

and watch oil. 
Hess, Becker & Co., St. Charles, Missoim. — Sample of idtramarine. 
HiRSCH, Joseph, Chicago, Illinois. — Glycerine, albmnen, &c. Honorable 

mention. 
HoLLiDAY, T. & C, 194 Broadway, Il^ew York. — Dyes made from aniline, 

l^igments and colors, chemicals. Honorable mention. 
HoTCHKiss, H. G., Lyons, ^ew York. — Sami)les of essential oils. Bronze 

medal. 
HoTCHKiss, L. B., Phelps, Kew York. — Specimens of oils of peppermint 

and si^earmint. Bronze medal. 
Kleffer, X., ]S^ew Orleans, Louisiana. — Bitters. 
Louisiana Petrolelt^i and Mining Company, A. L. Fields, secretary, 

New^ Orleans, Louisiana. — Specimens of petroleum. 



280 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP V. 

Maginnis, a. a., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Cotton seed oil, soaj), and 

oil cake. 
Marietta and Gales Fork Petroleum Company, E. K. Shaw, 

director, Marietta, Ohio. — Crude lubricating i^etroleum. Honorable 

mention. 
McEoBERTS & Dick, Kew Orleans, Louisiana. — Soap, 
Morgan's, E., Sons, 274 Washington street, New York. — Family soap. 
Pease, F. S., Buffalo, New York. — Illuminating and lubricating oils, 

paraffine. Silver medal. 
•Ehodes, B. M., & Co., Baltimore, Maryland. — Superphosphate of lime 

for manure. 
Smith, E. M., Baltimore, Maryland. — Eefined burning and lubricating 

l^etroleum oils. Honorable mention. 
Standard Soap Company, San Francisco, California. — Soap and wash- 
ing powder. 
The soap is represented to be made in San Francisco exclusively from 
materials produced in the State of California. The alkali is said to be 
made from the ashes of the ice i)lant, which grows in Santa Barbara 
county. 
Yanderburgh, G., 24 Yesey street, New York. — Specimens of alkaline 

silicates. 
Yan Deusen Brothers, Kingston, New York. — Oil of mntergreen. 
YoLCANic Oil and Coal Company, of Western Yirginia, Philadelphia, 

Pennsylvania; H. G. Moehring, agent. — Lubricating mineral oil. 

Honorable mention. 
Wahl, C, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — Specimens of glue. 
Weston, H., 706 Broadway, New York. — Concentrated aqueous solution 

of iodine. 
West Yirginia, State oe, J. H. Diss Debar, agent. — Crude and refined 

petroleum. Bronze medal. 
White, G. E., New York. — Swan Island guano. 
White, M. J., parish of Plaquemines, Louisiana. — Extract of red Tobasco 

pepper. 
Uren, Dunstone & Blight, Eagle Eiver, Michigan.— Water proof 

safety fuse. 

class 45.— specimens ILLUSTRATING THE CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN 
bleaching, dyeing, printing, AND DRESSING FABRICS. 

HOLLIDAY, T. & C, 194 Broadway, New York. — Woollen, cotton, and 
silk goods, dyed and i^rinted with aniline dyes. 

CLASS 46.— leather AND SKINS. 

Bacon, S. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — Yulcanized rubber. 
Browne, D. Jay, Park street, Eoxbury, Massachusetts — Enamelled 
leather, manufactured by a new process. Honorable mention. 



CLASS XLVii.XLViii] UNITED STATES SECTION. 281 

GuNTHEE, & Sons, 502 Broadway, 'New York. — Furs for ladies' and gen- 
tlemen's wear, sleigh robes. 

KoRN, Charles, 19 Ferry street, l^ew York. — Calfskin leather. Honor- 
able mention. 

McDonald & Hurd, Winchester, Massachusetts. — Calfskin leather. 

Meyer, C. F. "VY., Union Hill, New Jersey. — Piano-forte buckskins. 

Page, M. W., Franklin, ^ew Hampshire. — Samples of belt lacing made 
by a new process of tanning. 

Schorr, T., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Alligators' skins tanned for shoe 
leather. 

Smith, Lyman, & Son, Boston, Massachusetts. — Sami)les of leather for 
cotton factory rollers. 

Wisconsin, State of. — Leather and skins. 

GROUP VI. 

APPAEATUS AND PEOCESSES USED IN THE COMMON AETS. 

CLASS 47.— APPARATUS AND METHODS OF MINING AND METALIJJRGY. 

Elsberg, L., 123 West Fifteenth street. New York. — Model peat fuel 

machine. 
Gaujot, E. C. E., Tamaqua, Pennsylvania. — Aj^paratus and methods of 

mining and metallurgy. 
Hallidie, a. S., San Francisco, California. — Samples of round and flat 
wire cables for mining and other purposes. 
Donated, at the close of the Exposition, to the Museum of the Con- 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers. 

Harrington, J. E., Brooklyn, New York. — Self rarefying tuyere. 
Haupt, Herman, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Steam drill tunnelling 
machine. Bronze medal. 
This machine is the result of the experience of ten years. The attemi)t 
has been made to construct a machine which is strong, light, compact, 
and cheai) -, so mounted as to be placed and secured at any desired eleva- 
tion, and which does not occupy a great space in the tunnelof a mine. 
All these desirable qualities are claimed for this machine. 
Stea]m Stone Cutter Company, G. F. W. Wardwell, superintendent, 
18 AYaU street. New York. — Stone channelling and quarrying ma- 
chine, full size and model of the same. 
This machine was exhibited in the Annex, in the Park, near the 
Avenue Sufifren, and received a silver medal. 

CLASS 48.— implements AND PROCESSES USED IN THE CULTIVATION 
OF FIELDS AND FORESTS. 

The exhibits in this class were placed in the Annex, in the Park, near 
the Avenue Sufiren. 
Alden, M., & Son, Auburn, New York. — Horse hoe. 



282 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VI. 

BiDAYELL, J. C, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Comstock's rotary spader; 

ploughs. 
Brinkeriioff, J., Auburn, l^ew York. — Hand Indian corn sheller, sep- 
arator and cleaner. 
Brown, J. S., V\^ashington, D. C. — Harpoon fork, for lifting hay. 
Collins & Company, 212 Wall street, New York.— Steel ploughs. Silver 

medal. 
The special good qualities claimed for these ploughs are, that the soil 
does not adhere to them, that they do -not require as much power as other 
ploughs, and that they last longer. Any part of one of these ploughs 
that becomes broken or worn can be replaced without difficulty. 
Clipper, Mower, and Eeaper Company, 189 Water street, New 

York. — Combined clipper, mower and reaper, and other agricultural 

machines. 
Deere & Company, Moline, Illinois. — Steel ploughs. Bronze medal. 
Emery & Company, Chicago, Illinois. — Hog tamer. 
E^IERY, H. L., & Son, Albany, New York. — Horse power. 
Free, J. W., Eichmond, Indiana. — Fanning mill, clover sower. 
Full AM, A. T., Springfield, Vermont. —Machine for shearing sheep and 

clipping horses. 
Hall & Speer, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Iron centre i3lough. 
Hall, J. A., Columbus, Ohio. — Cotton clipper, strawberry cultivator and 

drill. 
Herring, S. C, 251 Broadway, New York. — Bullard's patent hay tedder. 
Lanostroth, L. L., Oxford, Ohio.— Bee hives. 

McCoRMiCK, C. H., Chicago, Illinois. — Eeai)ing and momng machines. 
The reaping and mowing machines of Mr. McCormick are well knoAVQ. 
Although invented as early as 1831, they Avere not brought to the notice 
of Europe until the Universal Exhibition at London, in 1851, when the 
Council medal was awarded to the exhibitor. In 1855 Mr. McCormick 
received the medal of honor at the Paris Exhibition, and in 1857 the 
gold medal of the Agricultural Society of New York. He has also re- 
ceived prizes at London, Lille, and Hamburg. About 10,000 of his ma- 
chines have been made and sold in two years. Several machines have 
been purchased for use on the Emperor's farms. Gold medal, also. Grand 
prize, gained in the field trials of agricultural machines.^ 

Mr. McCormick, by a decree of the Emperor, was created Chevalier of 
the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 
MuNROE, H. H., & Company, Eockland, Maine. — Eotary harrow. 
Partridge Fork Works, Leominster, Massachusetts. — Hay forks? 

rakes, potato diggers. (Palace.) Bronze medal. 
Perry, John G., Kingston, Ehode Island. — Mowing machine. Bronze 

medal. 
Seymour, J. B., Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Corn i^lanter. 

Seymour, Morgan & Allen, New York. — Eeaper. 

ji — 

' See List of Awards. 



CLASS XLVIILJ UNITED STATES SECTION. 283 

Wellington, A. H., & Company, Woodstock, Yermont. — Eoot cutter. 
Wheeler, Melick & Company, Alt)any, ISew York. — Palmer's excel- 
sior horse pitclifork. 
Wood, W. A., Mowing and Ee aping Machine Coivipany, Hoosick 
Falls, New York. — Momiig and reaping macliines. 

The value of the mowing and reaping machines of Mr. W. A. Wood is 
shown by the large number of prizes obtained by him at the principal exhi- 
bitions in England, France, and America, as also by the immense number 
of machines sold — no less than 40,000 during five years, to 1867. He has 
wisely adhered to the wooden frame, believing that it renders a machine 
more elastic than when made exclusively of iron. By the admirable 
proiiortions and balance of his macliines he has been able to secui^e that 
lightness of draught, power of close cutting, and portability, for which 
they are so remarkable. Several machines have been purchased for use 
on the Emperor's farms. Gold medal, also, a gold medal with a work of 
art. This last medal and prize was gained in the field trials of agricul- 
tural machines.^ 

Mr. Wood, by a decree of the Emperor, was created Chevalier of the 
Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 
WooLDRiGE, S. H., Yenice, Illinois. — Plough. 

AMERICAN PLOUGHS AT THE EXPOSITION. 

The following notice of American ploughs at the Paris Exposition was 
translated for the monthly reiDort of the Department of Agriculture : ^ 

"• American xDloughs at the Paris exhibition, 1867, were few in number, 
but fiu^nished a comi)lete illustration of the excellent construction and 
solid execution of farming tmj)lements in the United States. With but 
few excei)tions all the ploughs were furnished vdth beams and handles of 
wood, but this was of such excellent quality that wood in this instance, 
on account of its extraordinary toughness, withstanding the utmost 
amount of tear and toil, is to be i)referred to iron most decidedly. With 
us, such an excellent material (white oak and hickory) is wanting entirely, 
otherwise it ought to be substituted for iron at once. 

" The form of the American smoothing board has been aiiplied with us 
long ago, and wherever the soil is too cohesive for the Euchadlo plough, 
it always has proved to be the best, as it holds a middle place between 
the long, sharp, and screw-like English board and that of the Euchadlo 
plough, composed of two straight sides uniting above in form of a tri- 
angle. As the EngUsh board excels in heavy, tough clay soil, while the 
latter is adapted best to loose, falling ground, the American share is the 
best for a medium sod to be turned entirely upside down. All these 
ploughs exhibited were swing ploughs, sometimes with a stilting- wheel 
attached to the fore part of the beam, as also frequently used with us, 
while fore-carts, (running on two wheels to rest the beam,) such as are 

^ See List of Awards. 

2 Monthly Report of the Department of Agriculture, May and June, 1868, p. 286. 



284 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VI. 

used in England and on the continent, seem to be but of little use in 
America. 

'' The cutter is peculiar in most American ploughs ; either a common 
cutter like ours, attached to the beam or to the share, in form of a ver- 
tical blade, as. high as the plough is to go down into the ground, one 
piece vrith the share itself 5 or at last a revolving cutter, attached belovr 
the beam. The latter arrangement seems excellent to cut turf and roots 
in marshy ground that is to be broken up. 

" The most interesting ploughs from America were exhibited by : 

'' 1. Collins & Company, Hartford, Connecticut. Collins & Company's 
Ijlouglis are of different sizes, from three inches to one and a half feet in 
depth, otherwise built on the very same plan ; thus the connecting irons, 
screws, etc., of one size will do for all the others. Their steel smoothing- 
boards, cast, according to statements, in polished forms, are highly jdoI- 
ished, so as to warrant easy work. Their extraordinary hghtness is 
another advantage, those for seven inches depth weighing forty, and 
those i^loughing fourteen inches deep no more than ninety-five i)ounds. 

"2. Deere & Comj^any, Moline, Illinois. The same as the former, 
except as to double or Euchadlo shares with some numbers, on the Bohe- 
mian x)lan, of German, probably Westphalian steel, as the manufacturers 
assure us. Sometimes the whole lower part of the share and both smooth- 
ing-boards are formed of one single piece. Their depth is very uniform, 
from 12 to 14 inches, (destined for i^rairie soil.) 

'^3. Hall & Speer, Pittsbin-g, Pennsylvania, whose ploughs showed 
some essentially different qualities from those of other firms ; rod-iron 
strongly-bent beams, shares with attached blade for cutter, and also a 
peculiar connection of the beam with the body of the plough, gi^^hig 
great firmness to the latter. The connection of all these parts is effected 
by means of screws, the heads of which are sunk so as to afford an even 
surface. These i^loughs are constructed of very different sizes, ranging 
from 60 to 150 pounds each, and from lOJ to 17 dollars, respectively. 

'^ 4. Canadian ploughs, by Mahaffy in Brampton, Gray in Edmondville, 
and Duncan in Markham, all having rod-iron or cast-steel smoothing- 
boards, more like the English than like the American patterns, and 
instead of being concave they were convexed like those by Hornsby in 
England, and had very long handles. Those ploughs exhibited by 
Mahaffy and Gray had wooden handles and beams, while Duncan's were 
entirely composed of iron. Concerning their construction and technical 
execution, these Canadian ploughs were by no means inferior to those 
from the United States ; their workmanship every way being worthy of 
imitation." 

CLASS 49.— APPARATUS AND INSTRUMENTS FOR FISHING, HUNTING, AND 
FOR COLLECTING NATURAL PRODUCTS. 

Oneida Community, J. H. Noyes, agent, Oneida, New York. — Traps. 



CLASS L.J UNITED STATES SECTION. 285 

CLASS 50.— MATERIALS AND METHODS OF AGRICULTURAL WORKS AND 
OF ALIMENTARY INDUSTRY. 

Bacon, S. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — Cracker, bread, and cake nia- 
cliinery ; (in the bakery. Park.) Honorable mention. 
The principal parts of this apparatus, which is capable of preparing 5,000 
pounds' weight per day, is protected by European patents and comprises : 
1. A mechanical revolving oven capable of receiving and holding a contin- 
uous supply of 600 poiuids of bread or crackers. It is claimed that this oven 
with a given amount of fiiel, time, space, and labor, will bake at least twice 
as much as any oven in Europe. 2. A smoke and gas consuming furnace, 
the invention of Jonathan Amory, of Boston, which has been i)ut into 
practical operation by Mr. Bacon. The combustion is so perfect that no 
smoke issues from the chimney. 3. Various machines used in mixing, 
kneading, and cutting. 4. A sectional steam generator, exhibited by T. 
S. Ologston & Company, of Boston. This generator consumes only 48 
pounds of coke per day, and will bear, if required, a pressui^e of 900 
pounds per square inch. This generator supplies the Boot trunk engine 
which drives the machinery in Mr. Bacon's establishment. 5. Clark's 
steam and fire regulator. 6. Grate bars by L. B. Tupper, 'Ne^Y York, 
which, from their peculiar shape, effect a saving in cost of one-fifth com- 
l)ared with the ordinary grate bar. 7. Boot's trunk engine, from J. B. 
Boot, of IS^ew York. 

Baker, GsoRaE E., St. Louis, Missouri. — Dough-kneading machine. 

Honorable mention. 
Bassett, J. B., & Co., Minneapolis, Minnesota. — Wooden buckets. 
Champlin, J. E., & Co., Laconia, ^ew Hampshire. — Ice cream freezer. 

(In the American restaurant.) 
Colby, D. C, Washington, D. C. — Flour sieve ; coffee mill and can. 
Elting Bolt and Duster Company, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Bolt and duster 

machine. 
Goodell, D. H., Antrim, Kew Hami)shu'e. — Apple parer. Bronze medal. 
Hudson, C. H., 5 Barclay street, E"ew York. — Washing machine. 
Low, D. W., Gloucester, Massachusetts. — Ice crusher. (In the Ameri- 
can restaurant.) 
Metropolitan Washing Machine Company, E. C. Browning, agent, 

32 Courtland street, I^ew York. — Clothes wringers. Honorable 

mention. 
Morris, Tasker & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Wringing 

machine. Bronze medal. ' 
Palmer, S. W., & Co., Auburn, Ii^ew York. — Clothes wringers, mangles, 

and ironers. 
PuRRiNOTON, G., Jr., 5 Barclay street, :N'ew York.— Carpet sweeper. 

Honorable mention. 
Sargent, E. H., Boonton, E^ew Jersey. — Alarm coffee' boiler. 
Sedgebeer, J., PaiQesville, Ohio. — Grinding mills for corn and spices. 



286 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group Vl. 

SoMERS, D. M., Washingtou, D. C. — Self-acting tiimbler waslier. (In 
tlie American restaurant.) 

TiLDEN, Howard, Boston, Massachusetts. — Flour and sauce sifter; E. 
Smith's tobacco cutter; champion egg beater. Honorable mention. 

Ward, J., & Co., 457 Broadway, 'New York. — Clothes wringer. Hon- 
orable mention. 

WiNDLE & Co., 56 Maiden Lane, IsTew York. — Carpet sweeper. 

CLASS 5L— CHEMICAL, PHARMACEUTIC, AND TANNING APPARATUS. 

Butler, J. L., St. Louis, Missouri. — Soda water fountain. (In the Annex.) 
Hows, Clark & Yan Winkle, Boston, Massachusetts. — Ice cream soda 

water apparatus and fountains, carbonic acid gas generators. 
HoaLEN & Graelin, Dayton, Ohio. — Tobacco-cutting machine. Bronze 

medal. 
Metropolitan Washing Machine Co^ipany, R. C. Browning, agent, 

32 Courtland street, New York. — Doty's clothes washer. Honorable 

mention. 
Prentice, J., Sixth avenue, I^^ew York. — Cigar-making machine. (Shown 

in the Annex in the Park.) Honorable mention. 
ScHULTZ & Warker, New York. — Soda water apparatus and fountains. 

Silver medal. 
One of the fountains was tested by a pressure of 15 atmospheres. 
Ward, J., & Co., 457 Broadway, New York. — ^Washing machine. Hon- 
orable mention. 

CLASS 52 AND 53.— MACHINES AND MECHANICAL APPARATUS IN GENERAL. 

American Steam Gauge Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — (In M. 

Bacon's bakery, Park.) Pressure steam gauge; Bourdon's patent 

with T. W. Lane's improvement. Honorable mention. 
Andrews, William D., & Brother, 414 Water street, Xew York. — 

Centrifugal pump and oscillating engine. Honorable mention. 
Automatic Boiler Feeder Company, G. A. Eiedel, director, 945 Eidge 

Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Automatic boiler feeder. 

Bronze medal. 
Bacon, S. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — (In the bakery. Park.) '^Anti- 

incrustator," for steam boilers. 
Broughton & Moore, 41 Centre street, New York. — Oilers, cocks, 

&c. Honorable mention. 
Bryant, F., Brooklyn, New York. — Grinding miU. 
Bryant, J., Brookl;^Ti, New York. — Bushing for shij)'s blocks; anti-fric- 
tion journal boxes. 
Clark's Steam and Fire Eegulator Co3IPAny, New York. — (In M. 

B aeon's bakery. Park. ) Steam and fire regulator. Honorable mention . 
Clogston, T. S., & Company, Boston, Massachusetts.— (In M. Bacon's 

bakery, Park.^ Cast-iron sectional steam generator, steam indicator 

and fire regulator combined. 



CLASS LIIL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 287 

Cochrane, James, 64 West Tenth street, IS^ew York. — Model balancing 

slide Talve, showing method of lubricating. 
CoLUiMBiAN Metal Works, J. P. Pirrson, President, 40 Broadway, 

ISTew York. — Seamless copi)er and brass tubes. 
Corliss Steam Engine Company, G. H. Corliss, president. Providence, 

Ehode Island. — Steam engines. Gold medal. 
The 30-horse power steam engine exhibited by this company was one of 
the most prominent objects in this class. It was much admired and 
appreciated, not only for its elegant and elaborate finish, but its perfect 
and noiseless automatic motion and the wonderful sensitiveness of its 
"cut-off." Its proportions and features were closely studied by many 
noted European engine builders. 
Crosby, Butterfield & Haven, 22 Dey street, IS'ew York. — Eoper's 

hot air engine. 
Dart, Henry C, & Co., l!^ew York. — Behren-s patent rotary engine and 

-pump. Honorable mention. 
This remarkable invention may be used either as a motor or pum^j. 
It consists of three principal parts: a cylinder and cylinder head, two 
pistons with their shafts, and two gear wheels to connect the i)istons. It 
is not liable to break down or get out of order, and, as the pump is without 
either valves or air-chamber, it is particularly well adapted for feeding, 
bilge, au*, and ^Tccking puri)oses. This engine can be worked by com- 
pressed air or explosive gases. As it measures accurately the quantity 
of water passing through it at every revolution, it may be used as a 
water meter. 

DouoLASs, W. & B., Middletown, Connecticut. — Pumps of various 

descriptions. Bronze medal. 
DwiGHT, George, Jr., & Co., Springfield, Massachusetts.— Steam. 

Honorable mention. 
Fairbanks E. & T., & Co., St. Johnsbury, Vermont.— Weights and 
weighing machines. (In the Annex.) Silver medal. 

The weighing machines shown hj this company were of all sizes and 
descriptions, from letter-balances and apothecaries' scales up to those 
used for weighing canal boats and loaded trains. 
Harrison, C. H., San Francisco, California. — Steam pump. 

This pump is used chiefly for wrecking, and is remarkable for the large 
quantity of water it wQl raise in a given time. It was kept running dur- 
ing the Exhibition, and was a conspicuous object at the entrance to the 
building by the Eue d'Afrique. 

Hicks Engine Company, C. D. KeUog, treasui^er, 88 Liberty street, 
ISTew York. — Steam engines. Honorable mention. 

A report and description in detail will be found in the Eeport on the 
Steam Engineering of the Exposition. The following notice is extracted 
from the company's circular; 



288 • PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. - [GROUP Vl. 

"This eugiuej invented by Mr. William C. Hicks, is patented in the 
United States, (February 21, 1865, and May 22, 1866,) and in nearly all 
European countries and their dependencies. 

"It has many advantages over any engine now in use, its chief feature 
being its intrinsic and matchless simplicity. While retaining the entire 
principle and action of the best appro^^ed reciprocating-piston engines, 
and doing no violence to the conductions of our most intelligent engi- 
neers that this principle and action cannot be superseded as long as the 
present mode of applying steam continues, the details are so far simpli- 
fied that the pistons connected directly to the crank form the only moving 
l)arts, and these with the cylinders compose the whole machine. This is 
done by making the pistons of suitable form and arrangement to enable 
them to perform also the offices of valves and cut-offs, dispensing not 
only mth these contrivances, but also with the whole array of valve-rods, 
eccentrics, rock-shafts, packing-boxes, slides, levers, cross-heads, and 
external attachments of every kind which they necessitate. The action 
of the pistons is alike simple and uniform, each being a slide-valve- for 
the one beside it. This invention, therefore, forms the most radical and 
entire change in steam engines w^hich has occurred since the days of 
Watt, and enables us to offer a better machine, simi)le, compact, light, 
durable, accurate, and economical in operation beyond all comparison 
with the past, and at far less original cost than ever before attained. 

"Four single-acting i)istons working in the four cylinders marked B, B, 
B, B, are all connected to cranks on one shaft by suitable connecting 
rods, each piston taking steam before the next succeeding one has fin- 
ished its stroke, thereby insuring a uniform and continuous motion, and 
avoiding the dead points which render ordinary engines so variable in 
their motions and difficult to start, if stopped or caught on the centre. 
This is in fact a double cut-off engine, T\i^thout the friction of a double 
set of valves with their multiform attachments. 

" The pistons are provided with proper ports and passages, which act in 
combination with ports and passages in the cylinders, to admit and 
release the steam, thus combining a slide-valve with the piston in one 
and the same piece, each piston admitting and exhausting the steam for 
its neighbor cylinder, as well as cutting off its own supply of steam from 
the boiler at any desired point. By this means the expansive force of 
the steam is used, and the exhaust allowed to remain open diuing the 
entire return stroke. 

"These i)orts and passages are arranged opposite each other m such a 
manner that a perfect balance to the pressure of the steam is effected, 
and the ordinary wear and friction of cylinders, pistons, and valves almost 
entirely obviated. It will also be observed that the motions of the valve 
and cut-off are equal in rapidity to the speed of the piston, and that the 
cut-off works in the closest possible proximity to the piston. 

" The pistons are effectually packed by a simple and convenient method, 
and can be tightened at pleasure. All the working parts are encased in 



CLASS LIIL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 289 

one casting, and are in no way exposed to the action of tlie weather, or 
to an accnmnlation of dirt. 

'' The number of parts and the wearing surface being so vastly reduced, 
tends of course to the same decrease of wear and tear, and of the risks 
and costs of reimirs. In this connection, the facility of repairs deserves 
especial notice, every part being accessible by the removal of a few bolts, 
and the whole machme being capable of dissection and reconstruction in 
a few minutes ; and the parts also being interchangeable, any portion can 
be quickly and cheaply replaced. 

a rpjj^g reduction of friction ; the diminished length of the steam-ports and 
clearances ; the decrease of the surface exposed ; the facility for casing 
the whole engine 5 the accuracy and perfection of the valve motion s and 
cut-offs ; the extent to which the expansion of the steam may be carried 
to advantage — all combined, necessarily give an unequalled economy in 
the consumption of steam." 
Hill, W. E. — Fin'nace gTate bars. 
Ho^VE Scale Company, Brandon, Vermont. — Scales of various sizes. 

(Also in the Annex.) Bronze medal. A large and excellent assort- 
ment of well-finished and useful instruments. 
Jenkins, 'N., Boston, Massachusetts. — Globe valves, cocks, faucets, &c. 
Jones, T. J., chief engineer. United States navy, Brookl;yTi navy yard, 

'Ne^Y York. — Piston packing spring. 
JuDSON, J., Eochester, 'New York. — Graduating governor for steam 

engines. 
Olmstead, L. H., Stamford, Connecticut. — Friction clut(^.h pulley. 

Bronze medal. 
Pease, F. S., Buffalo, l^e^Y York. — Pump for petroleum. Honorable 

mention. 
Pickering & Davis, ]S"ew York. — Marine and stationary engine regu- 
lators. Bronze medal. 
Platt, J. L., Kewanee, Illinois. — Coal chute. 
EoBiNSON, J. A., 164 Duane street, Kew York. — Ericsson's hot air engine. 

Honorable mention. 
EooT, J. B., ^ew York, (in M. Bacon's bakery. Park.) — Boot's trunk 

engine. Bronze medal. See a notice under " Boston Cracker 

Bakery." 
EoOTS, p. H. & F. M., Connersville, Indiana. — Eotary blower. Bronze 

medal. 
Sellers W., & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Injectors, dies, stocks, 

&c. 
Shaw, Phu^ander, Boston, Massachusetts. — Hot air engine. (Special 

installation in the Park.) Bronze medal. 

This engine is made- with two vertical cylinders, with single acting trunk 

pistons, hung fi'om the extremities of an overhead working beam. The 

beam centre on the side next the furnace is sufficiently i)rolonged to receive 

a fixed arm, from which the connecting rod runs to the crank of the main 



290 PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VI. 

sliaft. From the furnace, which is hermetically closed, the heated air 
and products of combustion pass over to the cylinders (to which they are 
admitted by suitable valves) with an average pressure of 14 x)ounds per 
square inch. While one piston is making the upward stroke, its annular 
face acts as an air x^ump for jPorcing cold air into a heater, whence the air 
passes under the grate to sustain combustion. The succeeding down 
stroke draws cold air into the annular space, and expels the gases just 
used through the tubes of the heater to the stack. By an ingenious ar- 
rangement the iine cinders are prevented from cutting the cylinders, and 
the cylinders are kept sufficiently cool. 

Mr. Shaw's engine, though not constructed with that regard to hand- 
some finish and elaborate polish which characterize many of the machines 
forwarded from the United States, was nevertheless much admired and 
esteemed for its originality. 
Sheldon, J., ^ew Haven, Connecticut. — Water-pressiu-e regidator. 

Honorable mention. 
Steam Syphon Company, H. S. Lansdell, superintendent, 48 Dey street, 
Kew York. — Steam sj"i)hon i^ump, and model of a railroad station 
pumxD. Honorable mention. 
Still WELL, D., Fall Eiver, Massachusetts. — Brushes for cleaning tubular 

boilers. . • 

TuPPER, L. B., ISTew York, (also in Mr. Bacon's bakery. Park.)— Furnace- 
grate bars. (See notice under head of Bacon's cracker bakery. ) 
Webster & Co., 17 Dey street, ^ew York.^ — Webster's patent ordinary 
wrench. 

CLASS 54.— MACHINE TOOLS. 

American Tool and Machine Company, G. H. Fox, president, Boston, 
Massachusetts. — Fox's screw-cutting lathe, with Kason's screw at- 
tachment. 

Bement & Dougherty, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.^Bolt and nut- 
threading machine, with opening dies. Silver medal. 

BerCtNer, T., co-operator, engineer of Messrs. Sellers & Company, of 
Philadelphia, Pa. — Exhibitors of machine tools, who received a gold 
medal for their exhibition of tools ; a silver medal was awarded to 
Mr. Bergner as co-operator. 

Brown J. E., & Sharpe, Providence, Ehode Island. — Eevolving head 
screw machine ; milling machine. Silver medal. 
It was stated that five or more of these machines were sold in Europe 

during the Exhibition in Paris. 

Cool, Ferguson & Co., Glen's Falls, ]^ew York. — Barrel machines. 
Silver medal. 

Gregg, Isaac, Philadelpliia, Pennsylvania. — Model of a brick machine, 
and specimen bricks. 
A full-sized machine in oi^eration was shown in the Annex of the Exhi- 
bition, Nos. 100 and 102 Avenue Suffren, and was said to be capable of 



CLASS Liv.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 291 

making from 35,000 to 40,000 bricks in ten hours. A bronze medal was 

awarded. 

Hakeis, D. L., & Co. — Improved engine lathe, with Van Home's patent 

tool elevator and screw cutter. Bronze medal. 
Justice, P. S., Philadelphia, Pennsj Ivania. — Power hammer. Bronze 

medal. 
It is claimed that^this hammer, with half-a-horse power, will work faster 
and better than those of the old style requiring the power of ten horses. 
It is a very compact machine ; the hammer is suspended by a flexible 
attachment to a cast-steel spring mo^ang between guides and receiving 
an alternate movement from a crank. 
Lyon & Isaacs, 9 Jane street, New York. — Self-feeding hand and power 

drill. 
Morris, Tasker & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Pii3e-cutting 

machines. Honorable mention. 
Olmstead, L. H., Stamford, Connecticut. — Machine tools. Honorable 

mention. 
Sellers, Williaim, & Co., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Machine tools. 

Gold medal. 
This house exhibits perhaps the finest collection of machine tools to be 
found in the Exposition. Their large planer is 24 feet long and 8 feet 
broad, with a carriage 8 feet high ; it cuts one way only, and the car- 
riage goes back with double-quick motion. The novelty in piinciple is 
that the bed is fixed, and the fr^ame or carriage carrying the cross-head 
and two lateral tool-posts travels on Y slides, and is moved by racks and 
l)inions actuated by two worm wheels from above. The forward and 
backward movements are given by racks and innions along the sides at 
the end of the strokes 5 the reversal of motion takes place by a ring, at 
the end of the worm shaft, being driven in by a projecting stud from the 
wall, the lever gearing thus throwing off the drawing belt from a large 
wheel to a small one, and vice versa^ as the motion is required to be quick 
backwards or slow forwards, for the cut of the tools, which are all three 
(one vertical and two lateral) self-acting. 

The length of the stroke is given in a very ingenious way by a mova- 
ble jam-nut on a vertical screw-shaft. 

A small planing machine, with moveable plate seven feet long, planes 
the whole length of its table 5 and this, like all the rest of Mr. Seller's 
machines, has an automatic outlift of the tool, so that in the backward 
motion it travels clear, and the point is not ground by trailing along the 
work. The feed motion is i:>eculiar, the limits of motion being attained 
by means of a segment piece attached by a rod to the crank, and adjust- 
able by a screw from central to any degree of eccentricity — the amount 
of eccentricity being' the limit of the feed motion. The change of move- 
ment from the quick to the slow is effected by two i^i voted levers travers- 
ing within an irregularly shaped iron circular ring, by means of which 
each of the belts, working in opposite directions, is turned, as required, 



292 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VI. 

over one of the three divisions of the vertical driving pulley. The two 
outside pulleys run free ; the middle one actuates the travelling plate, 
which works in Y slides, and is moved by bevel gearing actuating a 
worm wheel set diagonally to the length of the plate. The rack is cut 
diagonally to suit the thread of the worm. 

The automatic gear cutter is adapted for cutting cylindiical as well as 
bevel wheels of any size, from the smallest in ordinary use to wheels five 
feet in diameter. The cuts are made by interchangeable tools of the 
required dimensions for the tooth. The machine is fixed in an L- shaped 
frame upon the carriage, on which the wheel to be cut is pivoted. The 
cut is made by a milling tool, and after each operation the wheel is 
turned automatically to the required pitch for the cut, and so on, one 
cut at a time, turning out a finished tooth. 

The 25-inch lathe has the peculiarity of friction disks for moA^ng the 
carriage for ordinary turning, and for cutting special gear, which can 
be put in or out of contact at the will of the operator ) also, a rest for 
long, thin work, which requires support to i^revent vibration. The face 
plates are cast solid, in one piece, and further stiffened by ribbing at the 
back, so that there is never any spring. 

Mr. Sellers also exhibits an excellent 500 pounds' w^eight hammer, of 
which he is the lessee, remarkable for its simplicity and easy manage- 
ment. By means of a handle a workman may instantly alter the height, 
rapidity, or force of the blow, or render the valve motion manual or self- 
acting. 

The self-adjusting injector is an improvement upon that of Giffard, 
and is i^ro^aded with a handle which regulates the steam supply, the 
increase or decrease of which corresponds to that of the water delivery. 
The water sui^i^ly also corrects itself at all variations of steam pressure 
independent of the handle movement. 

Mr. Sellers exhibits in addition a variety of shafting, hangers, and 
couplings, which show a direct saving of first cost, from their dimin- 
ished weight, as well as i)erfection in construction. The double cone 
vice-couplings are easy of detachment, with double-traced ball and 
socket hangers, the bearings of which are light and easily adjustable ; 
the journal boxes are long, with uniform pressiu-e and length of bearing. 
Iron, not brass, is used in the iiuUey castings. The Avliole presents a 
very neat appearance. 

Union Yice Company, A. H. Brainard, Boston, Massachusetts. — Cast 

iron vices. 
WiCKERSHAM Nail COMPANY, A. L. Wood, treasurer^ Boston, Massa- 

sachusetts. — Nail cutting Machine. Bronze medal. 
It is claimed that this machine can be worked at a less cost than other 
machines now in use, while at the same time it produces a nail superior in 
its holdin g property to those generally manufiictured. As the nail is pointed 
like a chisel and tapers gradually through its whole length, it is easily 
driven and does not break the grain of the wood like a blunt or roughly 



CLASS LV-LVIL] U^'ITED STATES SECTION. 293 

jointed nail. In tlie second place this machine, instead of mannfacturing 
one nan at a time, as is done by machinery now in use, can cut from a 
20-inch iron i^late eight two and a, half inch nails at one blow, and can 
make three blows per second, thus giving 24 nails headed and jointed in 
a second. The same machine will make 160 half-inch brads per second, 
40 at a time, or about 3,600 pounds per day, including all sizes of small 
finishing nails. As a comparison between the Wickersham machine 
and those ordinarily in use at other factories, it is said that a large fac- 
tory with 50 machines will produce 50,000 kegs of nails per annum, 
whereas 50 Wickersham machines will make the enormous quantity of 
75,000 per annum. 

WiNSOR, H., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — Shot and shell polishing 
machine. 

CLASS 55.-APPARATUS AND METHODS OF SPINNING AND ROPE-MAKING. 

Bates, Hyde & Co., Bridgewater, Massachusetts. — Power cotton gin ; 

hand cotton gin. 
Emery, H. L., «& Son, Albany, IS'ew York. — Cotton gin. 
GODDARD, C. L., 3 Bowling Green, 'New York. — Mestizo burring picker. 

Bronze medal. 
Hall Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Bazin's cord 

twisting machine. 
Southern Cotton Gin Company, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. — Saw 

and roller cotton gins. Bronze medal. 

CLASS 56.— apparatus AND METHODS OF WEAVING. 

Crompton, George, Worcester, Massachusetts. — Loom for wea^^g 
fancy woollen casimeres, two yards in width. Silver medal. 
This machine will make 82 picks per minute while the others rarely 

exceed 65. 

Lamb, J. W., Eochester, I^ew York. — Knitting machine. Silver medal. 

Opper, M., Convex Weaving company, Few York. — Power loom. Silver 
medal. 

Prouty, a. B., Worcester, Massachusetts. — Card setting machine. 

Shaw, C. A., Biddeford, Maine. — Card grinding machine and model of 
the same. 

CLASS 57.— APPARATUS AND PROCESSES OF SEWING AND MAKING CLOTHES. 

Ajmerican Buttonhole Company, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — But- 
tonhole, cording, braiding, and embroidery sewing machines. Silver 
medal. 

Bartlett Sewing Machine Company, 569 Broadway, 'Ne^Y York. — 
Sewing machines. 

BARTRA3I AND Fanton MANUFACTURING COMPANY, Daubury, Connecti- 
cut. — Sewing machines. Bronze medal. 
20 UE 



294 PAEIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VI. 

Bruen MANUEACTURiNa COMPANY, J. L. Lilly, Secretary, 371, Broad- 
way, ISTew York. — Sewing macliine attachments. 
Continental Manufactueino Company, E. H. Smith, secretary, 

18 Beekman street, New York. — Sewing machines. 
Elliptic Sewino Machine Company, 543 Broadway, 'New York. — 

Sewing machines. 
Empire Sewino Machine Company, T. J. MacArthur, secretary, 536 

Broadway, New York. — Sewing machines. Honorable mention. 
Florence Sewino Machine Company, 505 Broadway, New York. — 

Sewing machines. Silver medal. 
FoLSOM, J. S., Winchenden, Mass. — Sewing machines. 
Griswold & Sheldon, New York. — Hat blocking machine. 
Hooper, N. B., Newark, New Jersey. — Hat finishing machine. 
Howe, A. B., 437 Broadway, New York. — Sewing machines. Bronze 

medal. 
Howe Machine Company, E. G. Sterling, secretary, 629 Broadway, 
New York. — Sewing machines. 
A gold medal was awarded to Mr. Elias Howe, jr., as promoter, and by 
a decree of the Emperor he was created a Chevalier of the Imperial 
Oi^der of the Legion of Honor of France. 
Mttimfort, Foster & Company, Detroit, Michigan. — Boot trees and 

lasts. Bronze medal. 
Shaw, C. A., Biddeford, Maine. — Knitting machine. Bronze medal. 
Union Buttonhole and Embroidery Company, Boston, Massachu- 
setts. — Button hole and embroidery machine. Bronze medal. 
Weed Sewino Machine Company, 506 Broadway, New York. — Sew- 
ing machines. Silver medal. 
Wheeler and Wilson, 625 Broadway, New York. — Buttonhole ma- 
chines } sewing machines. Gold medal. 
Bronze medals were also awarded to Messrs. A. J. House and A. H. 
House as co-operators. 

It is useless here to review the history, progress, and advantages of 
sewing machines. Every one understands their importance and appre- 
ciates their services. The various modes of construction exhibited by 
American manufacturers at the Champ de Mars have already been 
presented in preceding Universal Exhibitions, and have been explained 
and discussed either in the reports of the juries or in industrial publica- 
tions. To Mr. Elias Howe redounds the credit of the original invention 
from which, with i)rogressive variations, all the other systems are derived. 
Mr. Howe's invention, in its relation to labor, is analogous to that of 
the Jacquard loom, effecting an enormous saving of hand labor, and 
although, like the loom in question, looked upon at first with distrust by 
the working classes, it has in the course of time equally proved itself one 
of the greatest benefits ever offered them ; the increased facility of labor 
more than making up the loss occasioned by the diminution in the price 



CLASS LV-LVILJ UNITED STATES SECTION. 295 

of the article manufactured — a benefit falling in turn to the lot of the con- 
sumer — so that Mr. Howe may be considered not only in the light of a 
promoter of industry, but as a benefactor of humanity in general. 

The original machine, for which Mr. Howe has obtained the gold 
miedal, decreed by the international jury in honor of his long and useful 
researches in this line, was exhibited. The improvements made up to 
this time refer rather to perfection of form than to any great develop- 
ment of the actual principle. Mr. Howe, although possessing the exclu- 
sive patent for all sewing machines during a certain period of time, has 
generously allowed the right of fabrication to all parties inventing 
remarkable improvements in special branches. 

Since 1855, the sewing, embroidering, and braiding machines have 
been considerably simplified and perfected. The only really new iuA^en- 
tions since 1862 are those for making button holes. These complete the 
revolution operated by sewing machines. The machines for button holes 
are of two kinds, designated under the heads of special and mixed. The 
special ones are represented by two systems, both of which are auto- 
matical. 

1st. The system of Wheeler & Wilson, invented by two brothers, James 
and Henry House, all the mechanism of which is enclosed in a case placed 
underneath the work table, and moved, like all sewing machines, either 
by the treadle or steam. The machine on exhibition operates with won- 
derfid rapidity ; the needles moving backwards and forwards along the 
button hole until the work is completed. Under the eyes of the jury it 
made three button holes, on heavy winter cloth, in the short space of 24 
seconds. Its advantages over many other machines consist in avoiding 
the necessity of turning or moving the cloth along by hand. It makes 
button holes of every size and form ; and by an ingenious arrangement 
can be adapted to sewing tents, sacks, and, in a word, aU work which 
requires the solid and uniform stitching of two straight or curved borders. 

The second system is that exhibited by the ''Union Button Hole and 
Embroidery Company, " Boston. In this machine the upper or superior 
needles move vertically, while the lower mechanism makes the button 
hole stitch. The system is the inverse of Wheeler & Wilson's; the cloth 
or material moving and turning, and the needle operating in a fixed 
place. The cloth is attached upon a turning plate which, first, by a rec- 
tilinear, then rotary, and, lastly, another rectilinear movement, brings all 
the parts of the button hole under the vertical needle. It is a very inge- 
nious machine, and makes excellent button holes of all sizes. The only 
inconveniences which haA^e been spoken of resi)ecting it are, that it is 
heavy and complicated, and requires the cloth or garment to be turned 
and put in movement during the work. 

The mixed machines are ordinary sewing machines which, by a change 
of certain pieces, or by certain transmissions, can be transformed into 
button hole machines. There are three systems under this class : 

1st. W^heeler & Wilson's, which is also due to the invention of Messrs. 



296 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group vi. 

House, consistiug in replacing the platform of the ordinary sewing 
machine by a particular plate, which has a double movement of oscilla- 
tion and translation. The oscillating movement, combined with the 
action of the upper needle, serves to form the button hole stitch, while 
the translatory movement advances the work under the same needle. 
The button holes thus obtained are made fast at the two ends, and axe 
similar to those made in linen drapery. With this system buttons may 
be secured on garments, not, however, with sufficient rapidity to guar- 
antee much economy of hand labor. 

2d. The system of Bertram & Fanton applied, and applicable exclu- 
sively, to the sewing machines of Wheeler & Wilson. The. plate or 
button hole guide undergoes the same movements before mentioned, but 
by different transmissions. 

3d. The system of the ^'American Button Hole Company," of Phila- 
delphia. The machine exhibited by this company is so made that it can 
be used either for ordinary sewing or for button hole making. This 
machine makes very good button holes for the use of tailors, &c., but 
cannot be employed in linen drapery. 

For various improvements and modifications of sewing machines we 
may notice among the exhibitors the names of the Florence Sewing 
Machine Comi)any, 'New York; the Bruen Manufacturing Company, New 
York; the Weed Sewing Machine; the Continental Manufacturing Com- 
pany; the Bartlett Sewing Machine Company, and the Empire Sewing 
Machine Company, of New York ; as also J. S. Folsom, Massachusetts. 

Special machines for shoemaking are contributed by two houses : The 
Howe Machine Company, which has obtained a silver medal for its 
machines, and the house of A. B. Howe, ISTew York, to which the jury 
decreed a bronze medal. These machines, in the construction of which 
the Howe type is the most generally adopted, are used for all kinds of 
sewing on leather. 

In comparing the execution of the sewing machines exhibited at the 
Champ de Mars, one is particularly imx)ressed with the superior finish 
and the uniform accuracy of every part of the American machines. This 
is due to two causes: 

1st. To the immense impetus which has been given to the manufacture 
of sewing machines in the United States. 

2d. To the system of manufacture there observed. Every piece is 
separately made by machinery, so that any two complete machines of 
the same calibre are strictly identical in size and form in almost every 
particidar, and the pieces of one accord perfectly with those of the other. 

Statistics of the progressive march of this industry would be interest- 
ing ; unfortunately, however, the committee is not in possession of any- 
thing like complete documents on the subject. The following table, show- 
ing the number of macliines made by only one establishment, may serve 
to give an idea of the importance of this industry in America. 



CLASS LVIII.] 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 



297 



The house of Messrs. Wheeler & Wilson have manufactured sewing 
machines as follows : 



Years. 


Machines. 


Years. 


Machines. 


Years. 


Machines. 


1853 


799 

956 

1,171 

2,210 

4,591 


1858.'. 


7,978 
21,306 
25,102 
18,556 

28, 202 


1863 

1864 


29, 778 
40, 062 
39 157 


1854 


1859 


1855 


I860 


1865 


1856 


1881 


1866 


50, 132 


1857 


1862 













All the machines sent from the United States possess indisputable 
merits, and establish the fact that the country is still far in advance of 
Europe in the construction and improvement of these great labor-saving 
inventions. 

CLASS 5«.— APPARATUS AND METHODS USED IN MAKING FURNITURE AND 

HOUSEHOLD OBJECTS. 

American Saw Company, S. W. Putnam, secretary, 2 Jacob street, 

New York. — Emerson's patent saw. 
Davenport, H., ^N^ew York. — Armstrong's dovetailing machine. 
Fenn & Felber, St. Louis, Missouri. — W. Zimmermann's mortising and 

slotting machine. 
GrRANiER, l^MiLE. — Dovetailing machine 
Miller, W. P., San Francisco, California. — Adjustable teeth for saws. 

It is undoubtedly true that there is no one tool used in the mechanical 
arts of more practical utility than the circular saw. Notwithstanding 
their high cost and the daily exj^ense incurred in keeping them in order, 
they are used almost without limit. 

Formerly all saws were made by forming solid teeth on the periphery 
of the plate. Teeth thus made do good work, but are liable to be, and 
frequently are, broken off'. There is no means of restoring them when 
broken, except by reducing all the other teeth to the same radius. 

A circular saw, thirty inches in diameter, presents a cutting edge more 
than seven and a-half feet in extent. To reduce the saw one-eighth of 
an inch, and relieve the teeth the same as before, necessitates the filing 
away of a strip of steel one-eighth of an inch in width, by the thickness 
of the plate, and seven feet and ten inches in length, and by such operation 
the saw will be reduced one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Each filing of 
a solid tooth saw is attended with a like corresponding expenditure of 
labor and files. 

To obviate this difficulty, several plans for attaching teeth to saw 
plates have been devised and put in use, but with little or no success, 
for the following reasons: First, all insertable teeth heretofore used 
require a thicker plate to support them than do the solid teeth. And, 
secondly, what is saved in labor and files by the use of insertable teeth 



298 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP Vl. 

is absorbed in their purchase. For the above^ and other reasons inci- 
dental tlierewith, insertable teeth are not much used except in connec- 
tion with large saws, and it is asserted by practical saw makers, and not 
a few mill men and sawyers, that there is no economy in the use of 
insertable teeth as heretofore made and applied. 

Miller's saw teeth are annular disks with a portion cut out so as to 
make a cutting edge or point to the tooth. The teeth thus have the shape 
of a flattened ring with a portion removed. They are inserted in circular 
openings, or sockets, made in the periphery of the saw. This circular 
socket allows the teeth to be turned outward or backward within the 
outer edge of the saw plate. 

Among the many advantages claimed for these teeth above all others 
the following may be cited: They are stronger even than solid teeth 
formed on the plate; there is more room for the chips,* the saws require 
less power, and will make from eight to ten per cent, more of inch boards 
from a log than can be made by other insertable teeth saws; the teeth 
are self adjusting; being round, they may be turned in a lathe and be 
easily duplicated ; they can be quickly inserted ; they cannot be thrown 
out of their sockets, and, finally, they will last longer and thus accom- 
plish more work than other forms. 
EoGrERS C. B., & Co., Norwich, Connecticut. — ^Wood working machines. 

Gold medal. 
Whitney, Baxter, D., Winchendon, Massachusetts.^ — ^Wood working 

machines. Silver medal. 
WiNSLOW, J. B., 110 East Twenty-ninth street, New York. — Serpentine 

wood moulding machine. Honorable mention. 
WiNSOR, H., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. — ^Model of a machine for sawing 

timber for ships. 
Wright & Smith, Newark, New Jersey. — Scroll sawing machine. 

CLASS 59. -APPARATUS AND METHODS OF PAPER-MAKING, COLORING, 

AND STAMPING. 

Degener & Weiler, 111 Fulton street, New York. — ^Printing presses. 

Bronze medal. 
Forms may be coiTected on this i)ress without being removed. It can 
be worked by the foot or by steam i^ower. From 1,000 to 2,500 impres* 
sions can be taken from this x>ress in an hour, according to the capa- 
bility of the workman. 
Galloupe, Nicholson & Woodbury, Boston, Massachusetts. — ^Paper 

collar machinery. 
McLaughlin, E., Boston, Massachusetts. — ^Morse's improved bed j)late 

for paper making machinery. 
Saveet, J. E., Syracuse, New York. — Composing machine. Bronze medal. 
Welch, Patrick, 356 East Fourth street, New York. — Improved lower 

case for compositors. 



CLASS LX-LXIIL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 299 

CLASS 60.— MACHINERY, INSTRUMENTS, AND METHODS USED IN VARIOUS 

WORKS. 

Smith, H., Salem, Massachusetts. — Spring power macMnes. 
Van DENBURaH, Gr., 24 Yesey street, l^ew York. — Emery wheels. 
Welch, Patrick, 356 East Fourth street, 'New York. — Machine for 
dressing printing types. Gold medal. 

CLASS 61.— CARRIAGES, WAGONS, AND WHEELWRIGHTS' WORK. 

Blanchard, a. Y., & Co., Palmer, Massachusetts. — Bent wood. 
Hall, James, & Son, Boston, Massachusetts. — Top buggy. Silver 

medal. 
EuCKER, Major General, Washington, D. 0. — United States army wagon, 

harness, &c. 
SCHUTTLER, P., OMcago, Illinois. — Lumber wagon. 

This wagon is capable of bearing a load of 4,000 pounds. The box 
may be removed and a rack placed upon the wagon that will hold a large 
load of hay or straw. Loads of timber or lumber can be drawn without 
box or rack. It is furnished with a spring seat, which is moveable, and 
can be placed to suit the convenience of the driver. The ends of the 
box may be removed when desired, and, lastly, the wood of the wagon is 
of the very best seasoned and most durable material. 
Scott, J., Ocala, Florida. — Carriage wheel. 
Stephenson, John, & Co., 47 East Twenty-seventh street, New York. — 

Street railway carriage. Honorable mention. 
This beautiful and highly finished vehicle, intended for India, has the 
wheels placed underneath, and is so constructed as to bear with ease and 
safety a very great weight. The carriage, which is fitted up in rich style 
with exquisitely painted panels, is capable of containing from 30 to 40 
persons. 

Wood Brothers, 596 Broadway, New York. — Phseton and buggy. 
Silver medal. 

CLASS 62.— HARNESS WORK AND SADDLERY. 

Smith, T. S., Boston, Massachusetts. — New system of bit. 
Stattman, C, Natchez, Mississippi. — Ladies' saddles. 
Wellmann, C, 932 Broadway, New York. — Ladies' saddles; gentle- 
men's saddles. Honorable mention. 

CLASS 63.— materials FOR RAILROADS AND CARS. 

Creamer, W. G., 15 Piatt street, New York. — Eailroad brake and ven- 
tilator. 

Eastman, Z., United States consid at Bristol, England. — Model of street 
railway and carriage track. 

Fairbanks, E. & T., & Co., St. Johnsbury, Yermont. — Eailroad scale. 
Bronze medal. See a notice, also, in Class 51. 



300 PAKIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VL 

Foster, A., 50 Jolm street, New York. — Graham's locomotive spring 

balance. 
Hall, T. S., Stamford, Connecticut. — Electric switch alarm. 

This invention is intended to remedy the mischief which too frequently 
occurs on railways in consequence of the misplacement of a switch. It 
has an alarm and a signal, and is worked by electricity. When the 
switch is on the main line the electric current is broken, but if displaced 
the circuit is complete and an alarm is given by the vibration of a hammer 
against a gong. In addition to this the lines are connected with a mag- 
net, which operates a red and white signal, as the switch is right or 
wrong, displaying in the night time a red or white light. Both the alarm 
and the signal operate at the same time by the movement of the switch, 
thus affording a double security by an alarm for the switch tender and a 
signal for the engineer. 
Myers, G., Upi^er Sandusky, Ohio. — EaUroad journal boxes of "silicated 

copper." 
Star Metal Company, E. E. Childs, president, Kew York. — Star metal 

railroad journal boxes. 
The Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, Kew Jersey. — ^In the Annex, 

Park. Locomotive and tender, the "America." Gold medal. 
The weight of the engine, in running order, is 27J^ tons^ of the tender, 
when empty, 9 tons, or 18 tons when loaded. The engine frame is com- 
posed of the best American iron, and is light and strong. The truck of 
the engine is simply used to guide it, and at the same time carry the 
small amount of overhanging weight. The driving wheels bear the main 
weight of the engine, and, by means of equalizing levers, distribute it 
equally upon each wheel, giving the entire adhesive power of the engine. 
The side valves are what are termed roller valves ; the boiler is com- 
posed of 5-16th iron, and is double riveted. The usual load for this class 
of engine is 200 tons at a speed of 40 to 50 miles an hour. An engine 
built by the Grant works and similar to the " America," has drawn 400 
tons at a speed of 25 miles per hour during the last 14 months without 
as yet requiring repair. All the various operations required in the con- 
duct of the engine can be carried on in the apartment of the engineer 
and fireman; and the engine, even if running at the rate of a mile per 
minute, can be reversed, the reversing brake being capable of being- 
managed by a child. A signal bell communicates with the conductor 
as usual in American railways, and a powerfid reflecting light is 
placed in front of the engine, and can be seen, it is said, at five miles 
distance. The wheels of the engine are of cast-iron and hollow, and its 
grate bars are composed of hollow iron tubes through which the water 
passes. 

Warner, H. W., Greenfield, Massachusetts. — Cast-iron railroad rail 
chair. 



CLASS LXiv.] UNITED STATES SECTION. 30 1 

CLASS 64.— APPARATUS AND METHODS OF TELEGRAPHING. 

Caton, J. D., Ottawa, lUiiiois. — Pocket field telegraph apparatus. 

This instrument consists of a pair of helices, each two inches long and 
three-fourths inch in diameter, incased in a thin cylinder of hard rubber. 
They are wound with No. 36 insulated copper wire. The armature is If 
inch long, ^ inch thick, and J inch wide. The sounding lever, of brass, 
is IJ inch long, is placed horizontally, from the centre of which drops a 
perpendicular arm to which the armature is attached. The free end of 
the sounding lever plays between the milled heads of two set screws, the 
upper of which is inserted in the lower. This connects with a branched 
anvil, the two legs of which rest upon a brass sounding board. If inches 
diameter, which is concave beneath and is attached with three screws to 
the bottom of the case, a diminutive adjusting spring, actuated by a 
milled headed adjusting post with milled headed connecting screws. 
At the opposite end of the magnet is a key of very thin tempered brass, 
^ inch wide and 1| inch long, mth ivory finger piece, connecting points 
of platinum, and a current breaker with ivory handle. This completes 
the mechanical contrivances, and the whole is enclosed in a hard rubber 
case, with a cover like a snuft* box. 

The external dimensions when shut are, length 5 inches, breadth 2J 
inches, height IJ inch. The ends of the box are semi-circular. The 
case stands upon foui^ brass legs, f inch diameter and f inch long. Entire 
weight lOJ ounces. 

Here are all the instruments necessary for a complete telegraph office 
where the operator receives by soiuid, which is now almost universally 
the case in this country. No local circuit is required, but it is operated 
on the main circuit. The report is as clear, distinct, and audible as that 
of an ordinary sounder actuated by a local circuit. It is designed for 
use in the field or out of doors. A telegrapher will attach it to the main 
line anywhere in the country in five minutes, when he can send and 
receive messages with the same facility and accuracy that he can in a 
regular telegraph office. During the war Mr. Caton supplied the govern- 
ment with a large number of these instruments, but was unable to fill all of 
the orders of General Stager, who had charge of the government tele- 
graph department. Nearly all telegraph superintendents are supplied 
with them, as well as very many operators, who never travel without 
them. Their invaluable services in case of railroad accidents may be 
readily appreciated, and at the West they are in constant use. An 
account of their services thus rendered each year woidd fill a volume, 
and realty no train should ever move without one in the hands of a com- 
petent operator. These instruments are only made at Ottawa, Illinois, 
under the superintendence of that accomplished mechanic, Mr. Eobert 
Heming. 

CosTON, Mrs. M. J., Washington, D. C. — Coston's telegraphic night signals. 
FARiViER, M. G., Boston, Massachusetts. — Thermo-electric battery. 



302 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group Vi. 

Field, Cyrus W., The ANaLO-A^iERicAN Company, New York.— 

Transatlantic telegrapli. Grand prize. 
Hughes, David E., ]S"ew York. — Printing telegrapli. Grand prize. 
Morse, S. E. and G. L., Harrison, New Jersey. — Model of a new mode of 

laying and raising submarine cables. 
Ward, A. F., Pliiladelpliia, Pennsylvania. — Combination of colors for 

signals. 

CLASS 65.— CIVIL ENGINEERING, PUBLIC WORKS, AND ARCHITECTURE. 

Bacon, S. T., 1010 Washing-ton street, Boston, Massachusetts. — Door 

fastener. 
Bacon, S. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — Challenge lock. 
Banker & Carpenter, Boston, Massachusetts. — Paints, for buildings. 
Belcher Brothers, St. Louis, Missouri. — Plan of an artesian well at 

St. Louis. 
Board of Public Works of Chicago, A. W. Tinkham, secretary, 

Chicago, Illinois. — DraAving of a tunnel constructed under Lake 

Michigan. Silver medal. 
Bradstreet, J. E., Boston, Massachusetts. — Eubber mouldings and 

weather strips. 
Chapin & Wells, Chicago, Illinois. — Model of swing bridge. Silver 

medal. 
Dana, J., Boston, Massachusetts. — Faced or pressed brick. 
Day, H. H., 23 Courtland street, Kew York. — Model of a system of canals 

without locks, for steamers, &c. 
Derrom, a., Paterson, New Jersey. — Model trestle bridge. 
DoDDS, Macneale & Urban, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Bank locks. 
Gregg, Isaac, Philadeli)hia, Pennsylvania. — Brick-making machine, in 

operation, to be seen in the Annex of the Exhibition, ]N'os. 100 and 

102, Avenue Suffren. Silver medal. 
Herring, Farrel & Sherman, l^ew York. — Fire and burglar-proof 

safes. Bronze medal. 
HusTiN, A., Bristol, Massachusetts. — Mitre box, with scale. 
Johnson, J., Saco, Maine. — Dredging and excavating machine. 
Johnson's Eotary Lock Company, 18 John street, l^ew York. — F. G. 

Johnson's rotary locks. 
Johnson, W., Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — ^Bank lock. 
La Mo the, J. B., 5 WaU street, E'ew York. — Model of a house with 

tube frame. 
Louisville Cement and Waterpower Company, Louisville, Ken- 
tucky. — Cement. 
Milwaukee Brick Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. — Building bricks. 
Morris, Tasker & Co., Pliiladeli)hia, Pennsylvania. — Steam-coils, pipes, 

&c. 
Newmann, H. J., Andover, Massachusetts. — American woods painted 

in oil and distemper. 



CLASS LXVL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 303 

Nicholson, S., Boston, Massacliusetts. — Model of wooden pavement. 

Pease, C. F., Boston, Massachusetts. — Spring-balance curtain fixture. 

Eobinson, E., & Son, Boston-, Massacliusetts. — Metallic roofing. 

Smith, H., 255 East Thirtieth street, l^ew York. — Window blind and 
shutter fasteners. 

Vanderburgh, G. E., 24 Yesey street, Kew York. — Artificial building- 
blocks. 

Washburn, B. D., Boston, Massachusetts. — Kingman's paint roofing. 
Exhibited in Mr. Bacon's bakery in the Park. 

Webster, W., Eochester, New York. — Plans of parks. 

Weston & Putnam, Boston, Massachusetts. — Graining, in imitation of 
American woods. 

Yale and Winn Manufacturing Company, Sherbune Falls, Massa- 
chusetts. — Locks. Silver medal. 

CLASS 66.— NAVIGATION, LIFE-BOATS, YACHTS, AND PLEASURE BOATS. 

Beckwith, E. p., 'New London, Connecticut. — Model of a fishing smack. 
Brown & Level, Wall street, ISTew York. — Tackle for disengaging ship's 
boats. Bronze medal. 
This apparatus has been adopted upon many vessels and steamer lines 
in the United States. It is simple, reliable, cheap, and can be easily 
adapted to boats without change of rig. By its aid, one man, standing 
in the centre of a loaded boat, can detach it instantaneously from the 
ship, even while it is under full speed. 

Daboll, C. L., New London, Connecticut. — ^Fog whistle. In the Annex, 

Park. Silver medal. 
Duffy, J., Paterson, New Jersey. — Sectional model of iron-clad ship 

containing various improvements. 
Hudson, Captain J. M.— The ship ^' Bed, White and Blue." 

This little vessel, constructed by Mr. Ingersoll, of New York, which 
crossed the Atlantic with the two daring men, Captain Hudson and 
Captain Fitch, was, by special permission of the Emperor, installed in 
the Park. It was rigged as a three-master, 26 feet long, 6 feet beam, and 
registered 2 tons 28 cwt. 

Lepelly, N. D., Cleveland, Ohio. — ^New construction of rudder. 
Manley, W. E., New York. — Model of a paddle wheel for steamers, with 

vertical floats. 
Page, E. W., 69 West street, IS^ew York. — Oars. Honorable mention. 
Perry, E. F., i^ew York. — Life-sa\ing raft. 

Pratt, H. D. J., Washingi^on, D. C. — Model of a propelling apparatus 
attached to a small metallic vessel. 
The propelling screw in this apparatus is x)laced under the keel. 

Reed, J., San Francisco, California. — Model of a life boat. 
Eeim, W. O., Sx)ringfield, Ohio. — Hydrostatic scale. 



304 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [group vil. 

RoLLE, H., Boston, Massachusetts. — Model of a propelling apparatus 
for steamsliips. 

Yandeusen, J. B., 274 Seventh street, ISTew York.— Model of the Ameri- 
can yacht '' Fleetwing." Bronze medal. 

GROUP VII. 

FOOD, FEESH OE PEESEEYED, IX YAEIOUS STAGES OF 

PEEPAEATIOX. 

CLASS 67.— CEREALS AND OTHER FARINACEOUS EDIBLES, WITH THEIR 

DERIVATIVES. 

The cereal productions of the United States on exhibition were by no 
means sufficient to give one an adequate idea of the great grain-growing 
capabilities of the country. A resolution passed by both Houses of 
Congress in January, 18G7, instructed the Commissioner of Agriculture 
''• ta collect and prepare, so far as practicable, and with as little delay as 
possible, suitable specimens of the cereal productions of the several States 
of the Union for exhibition at the Paris Exposition." 

It was naturally expected that such a proposed exhibition of the finest 
samples of the best varieties of wheat, corn, and other cereals, would 
command the admiration of Europe, as it would assuredly arouse the 
pride of all Americans. 

l!Totwitlistanding the commendable activity of the Commissioner of 
Agriculture, the short time authorized for making the collection, and 
the multitude of unforseen difficulties which presented themselves, pre- 
vented the assembling of such an imi)osing variety of cereals as Avas 
desired and originally intended. 

Agriculture, Departihent OF, Washington, D. C. — Products from the 
following States : Wheat from Ohio, Indiana, Minnesota, Yirginia, 
Michigan, Pennsylvania, Xew York, Washington, Yermont, Massa- 
chusetts, Michigan winter wheat ; wheat from Boyer valley, Maine, 
Iowa, Wisconsin, Tennessee, Missouii, and Nebraska ; barley from 
Maryland and Connecticut; cotton seeds from Georgia; wheat from 
North Carolina, Minnesota, Texas, Kansas, Massachusetts, and 
Georgia ; oats from Baltimore county, Maryland ; peas from Illinois, 
Michigan, and Yermont ; beans from New York and Maine. Bronze 
medal. 
Babillon, Hinchman & Co., Detroit, Michigan. — Indian corn meal, 

white and yellow. 
California, State of. — Cereals. Silver medal. 

The exhibition of cereals of California production was made by Mr. 
Campbell, of San Francisco, Mr. Peters, of Stockton, and Mr. Perkins, of 
Oakland. The two former exhibited samples of remarkably fine Avheat. 
A silver medal was awarded to the State, as above. 
Campbell, J. W. H., San Francisco, California. — Cereals. 
A large sack, about two bushels, of California ^'high mixed white 



CLASS LXViiL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 305 

wheat," weighing about 120 i)oiinds. This wheat attracted much atten- 
tion and was greatly desired for seed by agriculturists. Agreeably to 
the directions of the exhibitor, it was donated, at the close of the Exhi- 
bition, to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 
Carpenter, William S., Harrison, New York. — Indian corn in the ear. 

Bronze medal. 
Glen Cove Starch MANUFACTURma Co., W. Duryea, secretary, 106 

Fulton street, New York. — "• Maizena," a preparation of Indian corn 

for puddings, custards, &c. Silver medal. 
Maizena is made from the Indian corn grown in the Atlantic States. 
It is remarkable as well for its nutritive qualities as for the many dif- 
ferent and useful ways in which it may be employed. The exports of 
this article to Australia are said to amount $60,000 annually, while 
England demands as much more, and on the continent it is rapidly 
coming into favor as an article for table use. Large quantities are also 
shipped to Japan and other portions of the world. It is estimated that 
the exportation of maizena now amounts to $400,000 a year, while in the 
United States perhaps even more is consumed. Three articles are manu- 
factured Irom the corn: 1st, the fine flour called maizena j 2d, corn 
starch; 3d, a starch made from the refuse, and employed for laundry 
purposes. 

Illinois, State of. — Cereals, grain in the ear, and flour. Bronze medal, 
Iowa, State of. — Cereals and flour. Honorable mention. 
Kansas, State of. — Cereals and flour. Bronze medal. 
Minnesota, State of. — Cereals. Honorable mention. 
Missouri, State of. — Corn, wheat, barley, oats, corn in the ear. 
Ohio, State of. — Cereals. Bronze medal. 
Perkins, D. L., Oakland, California. — A collection of seeds of cereals 

and vegetables gro^vn in California, 120 varieties in all, classified 

and labelled, and packed in glass. 
Donated at the close of the Exposition to the Imperial Societe de Accli- 
matation. This collection was accompanied by a photograph showing 
the variety of vegetables grown in California. 

Peters, J. H., San Joaquin county, California. — Specimens of wheat 

grown in California. 
Samory, H., Gentilly, Louisiana. — Pecan nuts. 
Urquhart, J. M., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Samples of rice. 
Warder, J. A., Hamilton, Ohio. — Samples of various kinds of Indian 

corn. 
Western Virginia, State of. — Cereals. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Cereals and flour. Bronze medal. 

class 68.— bread AND PASTRY. 

Bacon, S. T., 1010 Washington street, Boston, Mass. — Crackers; bread 
and cakes; aerated bread, Dauglish's system. Establishment in the 
Park. See a notice under Class 50. 



306 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP VIL 

CLASS 69.— FATTY SUBSTANCES USED AS FOOD, MILK AND EGGS. 
CLA.SS 70.— MEAT AND FISH. 

Borden, Gail, 36 Elizabeth street, Xew York. — Extract of beef. Hon- 
orable mention. 

Bray & Hay es, Boston, Massacliusetts. — Preserved lobster. Honorable 
mention. 

Cape, Culver & Co., Kew York. — Manliattan liams. Silver medal. 

CuLBERTSON, Blair & Co., CMcago, Illinois. — Packed beef, pork, and 
lard. Silver medal. 

DuEFiELD, Charles, Chicago, Illinois. — Salt cnred, and smoked hams. 
Silver medal. 

Portland Packing Company, Portland, Maine. — Preserved oysters 
and lobsters. Honorable mention. 

TowNSEND Brothers, 79 Water street, ]^ew York. — Canned oysters. 
Honorable mention. 

CLASS 71.— vegetables AND FRUITS. 

MoTT, B. C, ISTew Orleans, Louisiana. — Sample of file, powdered sassa- 
fras root ; gumbo powder for soups. 

Oneida Comimunity, J. A. I^^oyes, agent, Oneida, New York. — Preserved 
fruits. Honorable mention. 

Portland Packing Company, Portland, Maine. — Preserved vegetables. 

Squire, John J., ]S"ew London, Connecticut. — Preserved fruits and vege- 
tables. Bronze medal. 

TowNSEND Brothers, 79 Water street, l!^ew York. — Canned fruits. 

CLASS 72— CONDIMENTS AND STIMULANTS, SUGAR AND SPECIMENS OF 

CONFECTIONERY. 

Avery, D. D., Petite Anse, Louisiana. — Crushed rock salt. Honorable 
mention. 

Davidson, John, St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana.—Refined yellow sugar. 
Honorable mention. 

Germania Sugar Company, Chatsworth, Illinois. — Beet sugar. 

Iowa, State of. — Sorghum syrup and sugar. 

Johnson, Bradish, Louisiana. — Sugar. Bronze medal. 

Laurence, E., Louisiana. — Sugar. Silver medal. 

Lopez, D., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Chocolate. 

Peck, O. E., Yermont. — Maple sugar. 

Sabatier, G., Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana.— Sugar. Honorable men- 
tion. 

Stanford, W. L., Plaquemine parish, Louisiana. — Clarified sugar. 

Thompson, A., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Samples of powdered and* 
crushed sugar, and golden syrup. 

TowNSEND Brothers, 79 Water street. New York. — Canned fruits. 

Waltemeyer, Jacob, Baltimore, Maryland. — Preserved fruits. Hon- 
orable mention. 



CLASS LXXiiL] UNITED STATES SECTION". 307 

Walter Baicer & Co., Dorchester, Massacliusetts. — Cocoa and clioco- 

late. Silver medal. 
Williams, C. C, 314 Dean street, ^ew York. — Hermetically sealed fruit 

in syrup. Honorable mention. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Sorghum syrup and sugar. 

CLASS 73.— FERMENTED DRINKS. 

American Wine Company, Saint Louis, Missouri. — Wines. Honorable 
mention. 

Anderson, W. F. & J. P., Cincinnati, Ohio. — Longworth's sparkling and 
still Catawba, Catawba brandy, red wine from Norton seedlings. 
Honorable mention. 

Bacon, S. T., & D. Jay Browne, Boston, Massachusetts. — Sorghum 
brandy, and brandy made from American wines and wild grapes. 

Bottler, Charles, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Dry and sparkling wines. Hon- 
orable mention. 

Brehm, F. C, Waterloo, Kew York. — Wines and brandies. 

BuENA YiSTA YiNicuLTURAL SOCIETY, San Francisco, California. — 
Sparkling Sonoma wine. 
Two cases of quart bottles, sample of the wine put up by this society at 

its establishment in Sonoma valley. This wine w as much liked by the 

committees and experts, and received the diploma of honorable mention. 

The company commenced operations in 1863, and in 1866 they put up 

40,000 bottles, and in 1867, 90,000 bottles. The California grape is used. 

Honorable mention. 

CozzENS, Frederic L., 73 Warren street, Kew York. — ^Wines and liquors. 

Dows, Guild, Clark & Yan Winkle, Boston, Massachusetts. — 
American bar and restaurant. Restaurant gallery. 

Griffith, W. M., North East, Pennsylvania. — American red and white 
wines ; brandies made from wine and lees. 

Hellman, a., 202 Broadway, New York. — Sparkling Catawba, made 
from grapes growing in the State of New York. 

Husmann, G., Hermann, Missouri. — Wines. 

Illinois, State of. — Wines. 

Keller, M., Rising Sun and Los Angeles vineyards, California. — Cali- 
fornia wines, brandy and bitters. 

KoHLER & Frohling, San Francisco, California. — Wines. White and 
red wines produced from the California grape at the vineyards, Los 
Angeles, California. 

Le Franc, C. H., New Almaden, California. — Red and white wines. 

Four cases, of 12 bottles each, of wine made by Mr. Le Franc at his vine- 
yards seven miles south of San Jose, upon the road to New Almaden. 

Leick, G., Cleveland, Ohio. — Wines. 

Met AYE, F., Jefferson parish, Louisiana. — Rum. 



308 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP X. 

Pleasant Valley Wine Company, CD. Champlin, secretary, Hain- 
moiiclsport, ]S'ew York. — Sparkling wines and brandy. Honorable 
mention. 

EowLEY, J. & S., Hastings-on-tbe-Hudson, ]^ewYork. — Hastings wine. 

St. Louis Park of Fruits, St. Louis, Missouri.— Catawba wine. 

Sansevain Brothers, Los Angeles, California. — Wines. 
Red and white, of several vintages, made from grapes grown in their 

vineyards in Los Angeles county. 

SivHTH, McPherson & DoNALD, West Eighteenth street, New York.— 
Pale ale, porter, and brown stout. Bronze medal. 

Sylvester, E. W., Lyons, Kew York. — Wine made from the American 
Oi)orto grape. 

Underhill, R. T., Clinton Hall, 7 Astor Place, New York. — Wines. 

Werk, M., & Son, Cincinnati, Ohio. — -Dry and sparkling wines. Hon- 
orable mention. 

CLASS 74 TO 89. 

(No exhibitors.) 

GROUP X. 

ARTICLES EXHIBITED WITH THE SPECIAL OBJECT OF 
IMPROVING THE PHYSICAL AND MORAL CONDITION 
OF THE PEOPLE. 

CLASS 89. -MATERIALS FOR, AND METHODS OF, TEACHING CHILDREN. 

Howe, S. O., Director of the Perkins, Institute for the Blind, Boston, 
Massachusetts. — Books and apparatus for the use of the blind. 
Silver medal. 
Illinois, State or.~Specimen of a western primary school and school 
furniture. 
The United States school house was intended to be an exact reproduc- 
tion of one of the numerous free primary schools which are erected in 
the country districts of Blinois. It was about 32 hj 50 feet, with an 
entrance i)orch, and a place for hanging up hats and bomiets, and coidd 
accommodate 50 pupils. This modest structui^e attracted great attention 
from those interested in popular education, and it was specially noticed 
by M. H. Ferte, late chief of primary instruction in Paris, in a contribu- 
tion to the Manuel General de I'lnstruction Primaire, from which the 
following descriptive extract is translated : '' Let us enter this modest 
structure of which we have spoken. We find a large room, which at first 
appears like all those built tor educational purposes; but let us exam- 
ine the details attentively, and we soon notice the excellent conditions 
under which it is established. First, the ceiling is twelve feet above a 
good floor — very necessary in a place where many children are to be 



CLASS xc] UNITED STATES SECTION. 309 

gathered. In the second place, the ventilation is perfectly provided for 
by means of sash windows npon each side and at the ends, which we 
designate in France as '- guillotine ;' but however they may be called, 
these windows have the immense advantage over ours that they give 
ventilation at pleasure, from the top or bottom, as may be found. desirable. 
Besides, they allow a free circulation, which, among us, is prevented by 
oiu" i^oor system of windows, opening inside, and which take off for this 
reason nearly two feet of ijassage room. Let us add that with the 
American windows the breaking of glass is made less frequent, and that 
the drafts produced Avith oui^s by the windows opening in the middle, by 
their arrangement are easily avoided. If, after the windows, we exam- 
ine the desks for the teachers and pupils, we find them very much 
preferable to those in use in France. While we have long tables accom- 
panied by long benches for accommodating ten or twelve pu^iils, who 
crowd, elbow, and hinder each other ; in this American school we find 
the desks or tables neatly arranged for either one or two scholars, with 
a seat ha^dng a support for the back of the pupil. The teachers who 
read this wiU understand at once the advantages of such an arrange- 
ment. Does a scholar need to leave his seat, he can do so without dis- 
turbing his neighbor, or without being obliged, to the great detriment 
of disciiiline, to pass before seven or eight of his feUow students, who 
never fail to make good such an occasion for mischief. It would be 
highly desirable to have these American desks introduced in our schools. 
The discipline would be benefited by it, the children could prosecute 
their studies without disturbance, and be very much more comfortable. 
We wish the same for the introduction of the inkstand with which each 
table is provided. The calculators, geometrical figures, globes, charts, 
and other school ai^paratus resemble much those in our best schools. 
Among the books we have examined we find many deserving of high 
commendation. We notice improved methods of teaching penmanship , 
excellent and simple spelling, reading and drawing books, quite superior 
in every respect, and also conveniences for cleaning blackboards, carry- 
ing books, and methods of object teaching, quite unknown with us. The 
desks, maps, globes, books, and school apparatus exhibited we find were 
contributed by the Messrs. Sherwood and A. H. Andrews, two large and 
enterj)rising dealers in these articles in Chicago, the i)rincipal city of 
Illinois and the northwest." 

Missouri, State of, J. L. Butler, agent. — Collection of books, papers, 
photographs, mai)s, &c., illustrating the resources of the State of 
Missouri. (In the Illinois cottage.) 

CLASS 90.— LIBRARIES AND APPARATUS USED IN THE INSTRUCTION OF 
ADULTS AT HOME, IN THE WORKSHOP, OR IN SCHOOLS AND COL- 
LEGES. 

(1:^0 exhibitors.) 
21 u E 



310 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. [GROUP X. 

CLASS 91.— FURNITURE, CLOTHING, AND FOOD FROM ALL SOURCES, RE- 
MARKABLE FOR USEFUL QUALITIES COMBINED WITH CHEAPNESS. 

(No exliibitors.) 

CLASS 92.— SPECIMENS OF THE CLOTHING WORN BY THE PEOPLE OF 
DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 

(]N"o exhibitors.) 

CLASS 93.— EXAMPLES OF DWELLINGS CHARACTERIZED BY CHEAPNESS, 
COMBINED WITH THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR HEALTH AND 
COMFORT. 

Flint & Hall, Boston, Massacliusetts. — Sectional building, containing 

M. Bacon's bakery establishment. 
GoTTHEiL, Edward, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Portable cottage build- 
ing, made of Louisiana woods. 
Illinois, State of. — Specimen of a western farmer's house. Silver 
medal. 
In the section of the Park assigned to the United States the State of 
Illinois exhibited the western farmer's home, or ''American cottage." It 
was constructed by Colonel Lyman Bridges, of Chicago, from x^lans fur- 
nished by O. L. Wheelock, esq., architect, of that city, and was forwarded 
in sections by railway to Nqw York, and was installed among other types 
of residences and palaces in the Champ de Mars. 

The object was to show the kind of dwelling much used in the agricul- 
tural regions of the United States — a dwelling which, while combining 
beauty and comfort, is within the reach of all i3rudent and industrious 
persons. It Avas intended also to make known the fact that the farming 
population of the United States may, and do very generally, own a sim- 
ilar or comfortable home, and that the laws give them liberal protection 
in the ownership. 

The building did not conform to any special order of architecture. 
The plan was such that one of the rooms on the ground floor could be 
first constructed and occupied as a temporary home by a new settler at 
an expense of not over $300, and so that the other rooms and the spacious 
haU could be added .after at the convenience of the owner. It was con- 
structed of Wisconsin and Michigan i^ine lumber, in part generously 
contributed by two companies, represented by Hon. W. B. Ogden, and 
by Messrs. Wood & Lawrence. The caj^acity of the house was sufficient 
for a family of six or eight persons, it having three rooms on the first 
floor and five chambers on the second floor. 

The cottage occui>ied a conspicuous and favorable position in the Park, 
and a low terrace around it was adorned with shrubs. It became a 
centre of attraction also by the distribution of documents and informa- 
tion there relating to the extent and resources of the United States. 
The walls were lined with maps and photographic views of prominent 
places, and maiiy statistical works relating to the productions and agri- 
culture and geology of the country were ranged upon the shelves of one 



CLASS xciiL] UNITED STATES SECTION. 311 

of the rooms. Information of tliis nature was eagerly sought by, and 
was freely given to, thousands of European visitors. 

This interesting and valuable addition to the United States section 
was secured through the exertions of James H. Bowen, of Chicago, United 
States commissioner. 



mTERNATIOXAL EXHIBITION OF WEIGHTS, MEASUKERS 

AND COINS. 

IN THE PAVILLION IN THE CENTRE OF THE CENTRAL GARDEN. 

The United States Treasury Department, Washington, D. C. — 
Weights, measures and coins, (in the central pavillion,) scales, (in 
the Palace.) 

INTERNATIONAL SANITARY DEPARTMENT. 

Collection of objects from the United States made by Dr. T. W. Evans. 
(See also classes 11 and 38.) 

The United States Sanitary Coioiission. — Material used in the late 
war. Grand i)rize. 

During the terrible civil war which desolated the United States for 
four long and bloody years, public feeling was forcibly aroused to the 
necessity of devising effective means for mitigating the sufferings and 
improving the sanitary condition of our armies. Laudable and philan- 
thropic efforts were set on foot for the realization of that noble purpose. 
All x)arts of the country were interested in the construction of apparatus, 
and the assembling of material which should contribute to the attainment 
of the desired end, and render the scenes and sufferings of the battle 
field less terrible. As a natural consequence of these efforts the United 
States sanitary societies and commission sprung into existence and ren- 
dered incalculable services to the nation. 

It is almost impossible to arrive at a just appreciation of the great 
good accomplished by the sanitary and relief societies of the United 
States. They mark a new era in the history of the world, as organizations 
based upon acts and imj)ulses of the noblest philanthropy ever conceived 
by humanity. 

The happy influence of these institutions has been felt in the Old 
World, and relief societies, animated with the same noble and generous 
feelings, have been established in Europe upon the exact model of those 
existing in America, and have also rendered immense services during the 
late wars. 

Many of the objects, apparatus, and inventions used by the United 
States sanitary societies were collected together after much effort, and 
exhibited on the Champ de Mars, in the name of the United States Sani- 
tary Commission. 



312 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

To mention in detail tlie many very useful objects comi)osing tliis col- 
lection would fill of itself a considerable volume^ only brief notices of some 
of tbe leading- articles will therefore be given. 

Under the bead of Ambulances of Transport, may be noticed: 

1. The Howard ambulance 5 made from plans furnished by Dr. Benjamin 
Howard, of New York. It is a light, two-horse, four-wheeled carriage, 
designed to carry four persons besides the driver, two recumbent and two 
sitting, or eight persons sitting. The body of the ambulance is mounted 
on elliptic springs, and the stretcher mattresses are fui^nished with infe- 
rior and lateral counterpoise springs, which modify or altogether prevent 
concussions, and contribute greatly to the safety and comfort of the 
patients transported. There is also connected with it a special mechani- 
cal contrivance — a ''sling'' — for the suspension of wounded limbs when 
necessary. 

2. An ambulance known as the Wheeling ambulance, improved by 
T. Morris Perot, of Philadelphia. This is a light, two-horse, four- 
wheeled vehicle, intended to convey four persons besides the driver, two 
recumbent, two sitting, or eight persons sitting. Perofc's improvement 
consists in the employment of springs of caoutchouc. It is claimed that 
this improvement secures for the carriage an easy and agreeable move- 
ment, and an almost entire absence of concussion, even over the rough- 
est roads. Aside from Perot's improvement, the ambulance is similar in 
its construction to those which, under the same name, were extensively 
used by the United States government during the late war. 

3. An ambulance made by G. Brainard, Boston. This ambulance is 
intended to carry six persons besides the driver, four recumbent, two 
sitting, or eight i3ersons sitting. The body is mounted on " platform 
springs f the mattresses and seats are arranged on what is known as 
the "Eucker i)lan," the back of the seats being hinged on the toj), so as, 
when opened iuAvard, and locked, to form an ui)j)er tier of mattresses. 
The ambulance on exhibition was employed during the war in the hos- 
pital service for several months. 

4. An ambulance, one of 30 of similar construction, given by the citi- 
zens of Philadelphia to as many fire companies of that city, and emi^loyed 
in the late war in conveying sick and wounded soldiers across the city 
from station to station. Not less than 3,000 soldiers were thus trans- 
ported in this ambulance. 

5. A model of a railway ambulance, or hospital car, made by Messrs. 
Oammings & Sons, Jersey City, from i)lans furnished by Dr. Elisha 
Harris, of New York. This model is a fac simile of the hospital cars 
employed during the war by the United States Sanitary Commission, on 
the railway between Washington and New York, as well as on several 
other military railways in other portions of the country. The model, 
constructed on a scale of one-fourth, shows in detail every thing — couches, 
dis])ensary, wine closet, water closet, systems of ventilation and heating, 
&c., employed in the construction and equipment of the sanitary com- 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 313 

mission cars, while at tlie same time externally it perfectly represents 
the construction of an ordinary American i:)assenger car. To it is attached 
a i:)atent safety break, as well as a set of self-acting ventilators, furnished 
by W. Creamer, of I^ew York. 

The Evans ambulance, constructed at Paris by Dr. Thomas W. Evans, 
was made with the view of uniting a ijossible capacity for four persons 
recumbent, with lightness, easiness of movement, facility of loading and 
unloading, and simplicity. It was not finished until the last of August, 
so late as to be even hors de concours in the competition for the special 
prizes offered for the best ambulance by the Societe de Secours mix 
Blesses. Nevertheless, such were its merits that the jury of the society 
saw fit to award to it a second prize of 500 francs, accompanied with an 
expression of regret that they were unable, in consequence of the fixed 
condition of the concours , to award it the first prize. 

This ambulance can carry ten persons seated, besides the driver and 
one or two attendants, or four lying down and two seated, besides the 
driver and attendants, as in the first-named instance. The seats can be 
used each as a mattress upon the floor of the wagon, the iron wheels with 
which they are furnished resting, when in position, upon springs beneath 
the floor, the object being to place these supplementary springs out of 
the way, and where when once fixed they would be secured against acci- 
dents. For the upper tier four rings of caoutchouc are attached in front 
and rear to the sides of the wagon, two feet nine inches from the floor, 
two rings to an upright in the centre of the wagon, immediately behind 
the seat of the driver, and two rings to a hook which may be dropped 
from the rear centre. By means of this arrangement, so very simple as 
scarcely to be observed, unless special attention is directed to it, two 
ordinary French, English, or American stretchers can be suspended 
whenever necessary, and two additional wounded transported in the most 
comfortable manner. This ambulance, weighing about 1,300 pounds, is 
slightly heavier than the other American ambulances. The forward 
wheels turn readily under the body of the wagon ; the top is covered with 
enamelled cloth, and folding seats are placed at the rear end, outside, for 
one or two attendants. It is furnished with a double tank for ice and 
water, and a box for a few necesssary supplies. Two stretchers are car- 
ried overhead inside and a supplementary one outside. 

AMBULANCES OF SUPPLY. 

1. A medicine wagon, known as Autenreith's, the fixtures having been 
furnished by G. Autenreith, of E'ew York. The wagon is intended to 
carry for field service a full complement of the medicines authorized by 
the '^supply table" of the medical bureau; also a set of hand litters, as 
well as a light, compact amputating table. Wagons of this kind were 
favorably regarded and extensively employed by the United States gov- 
ernment diuing the war. 

2. A medicine wagon, known as Perot's, constructed by T. M. Perot, 



314 PARIS UJ^IVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Philadelphia. In this wagon the drawers^and compartments are adapted 
to carrying medicines in bulk, in i^arcels, and in bottles ; the system of 
packing being such as to secure the latter against fracture, in certain 
instances by the emi^loyment of si^rings, in others by the emx)loyment 
of columns of compressible air, obtained by a simple device. A set of 
hand litters is carried, as also a strong amputating table. 

3. An ambrdance kitchen, invented by Mr. Pinner, of 'New York. The 
special purjDose of this kitchen is to furnish soldiers, particularly the sick 
and wounded, while on the march, or on the battle field, with hot coffee, 
soup, and cooked food of various kinds. While ijossessing all the neces- 
sary apparatus of a well organized kitchen, it can be used with great 
advantage at all temj)orary encampments and hospital stations, and is so 
made and furnished as to be used, if needed, as an ambulance of trans- 
port. 

4. A coffee wagon, invented by J. Dunton, of Philadelphia. The 
wagon exhibited designs to furnish the soldier on the march and on the 
field of battle with hot coffee and tea, was one of several in the service 
of the United States Christian Commission during the last months of 
the war, furnishing hot coffee and tea to the wounded of both armies. 

HOSPITAL TENTS. 

Several square tents are exhibited, similar to those generally used by 
the United States army. 

The hospital tent, called the '' umbrella tent," made by William Eich- 
ardson, Philadelphia, is claimed to occupy less space when packed, to be 
more readily unpacked and erected, and when erected to be more con- 
venient and secure, than either the square wall or Sibley's tent, which 
have hitherto been regarded with most favor. 

An officers' '^ umbrella tent," made by N. Walton, St. Louis, is also ex- 
hibited, and claims to possess the same advantages as the one akeady 
mentioned. Its height is 11 feet, diameter at base 13 J feet, form octa- 
gonal. It is sui^ported by a telescopic centre pole, slender T-iron rafters, 
and ^ight light wooden props. 

In this collection appear a number of horse and hand litters on im- 
proved principles ; i^ack saddles, old and new pattern ; models, i)lans and 
lithograi^hic views of various hospitals ; a great variety of beds, stools, 
tables, mess chests, mess kits, surgical instruments and apparatus, in- 
valid beds, mess panniers, hospital and field knapsacks, splints, fracture 
and amputating apx)aratus, artificial limbs, clothing used by the com- 
mission, food of all kinds, liquors, &c., bandages, comforts, cotton bat- 
ting, crutches, and, in a word, everything necessary for the comfort and 
convei'iience of the sick and wounded soldier. 

Under the head of material, historical and co-ordinate, are exhibited a 
number of books, pamphlets, and documents relating to the sanitary 
work, &c., &(i. 

A grand piize was awarded by the international juiy, which was handed 
over to the United States Sanitary Commission. 



LIST OF AWARDS 

BY THE INTEEXATIONAL JUEIES TO EXHIBITORS AND 
OTHERS, FROM THE UMTED STATES AT THE PARIS IJOT- 
YERSAL EXPOSITIOIsr OF 1867. 

For convenience of reference this list of awards has been alphabet- 
ically arranged. In the French official catalogue^ the names are not 
placed in alphabetical order. 

Each medal issned was accompanied by a framed diploma, which certi- 
fied that a medal had been awarded. When two or more awards of 
medals were made to one person or association the number of diplomas 
issued corresponded with the number of awards, but only one medal 
was issued, and this medal was always of the highest denomination 
decreed to the exhibitor. 'No medals were issued with the diplomas of 
Honorable Mention. 

NBW ORDER OF RECOMPENSES. 

For persons^ establishments, or localities^ which, hy organizations or special 
institutions, have developed harmony among co-operators, and produced, 
in an eminent degree, the material, moral, and intellectual well-being of the 
worlimen. 

AaRicuLTURAL SOCIETY OF YiNELAND, Gharles K. Landis, New Jer- 
sey. — An Honorable mention^ unaccompanied by a medal. 

Chapin, William C, Lawrence, Mass. — Grand Prize, a Gold Medal of 
the value of 1,000 francs, and 9,000 francs in gold. 

ARTISTS' MEDAL. 

Church, F. E., New York city.— The Artists' Medal, with 500 francs in 
gold. — Landscape paintings in oil. 

GRAND PRIZES. 

Field, Cyrus W., and Anglo- American Transatlantic Telegraph Com- 
pany. — Transatlantic cable. 

HuaHES, David E., New York.— Printing telegraph. 

McCoRMiCK, C. H., Chicago, Illinois. — Reaping machines. See, also, 
Gold Medal. 
By a decree of the Emperor, Mr. McCormick was created Chevalier of 

the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor. 

^ Catalogus officiel des Exponants Recompennes par le Jury International. 8vo. Paris : 
E. Deutu, Libraire-Editeur de la Commission Imperiael. 



316 PAEIS UNIVEESAL EXPOSITION. 

United States Sanitary Coivoiission. — Ambulances, materials, instru- 
ments, &c., for the relief of the wounded, used in the late war. See, 
also. Honorable Mention. 

GOLD MEDAL, WITH WOEK OF AET. 

Wood, Walter A., Hoosick Falls, 'New York. — Mowing machines. 
See, also, Gold Medal. 
By a decree of the Emperor, Mr. Wood was created Chevalier of the 
Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 

GOLD MEDALS. 

CHiCKERiNa & Son, ^ew York and Boston. — Pianos. 

By a decree of the Emperor, Mr. 0. F. Chickering was created Chev- 
alier of the Imi^erial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 

Corliss Stea^i Engine Company, Providence, Ehode Island. — The 

Corliss engine. 
Fire-arm MANUPACTURiNa Industry op the United States. — 

Fire-arms. 
Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, I^. J. — Locomotive and tender. 
Howe, Elias, Jr, — '' Promoter of the sewing machine." 

By a decree of the Emperor, Mr. Howe was created Chevalier of the 
Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France. 

McCoRMiCK, C. H., Chicago, Illinois. — Eeaping and mowing machines. 
According to the rule of the Imperial Commission this medal is 
absorbed in the Grand Prize. 

Meyer, Victor, Parish of Concordia, Louisiana. — Short staple cotton. 

EooERS, C. B.,& Co., ]N"orwich, Connecticut. — Wood-working inachines. 

Sellers, WilliAjm, & Co., Philadelphia. — Machine tools. 

Steinway & Son, ^ New York city. — Pianos. 

TragtER, Louis, Blackhawk Point, Louisiana. — Short staple cotton. 

Walbrtdge, Wells D., New York city. — Gold and silver ores from 
Idaho. 

Welch, Patrick, New York city. — Type-dressing machine. 

Wheeler & Wilson Manufacturing Co., IsTew York city. — Sewing 
and button-hole machines. 

White, Samuel S., Philadelphia. — Artificial teeth, and dentists' instru- 
ments and furniture. 

Whitney, J. P., Boston, Massachusetts. — Silver ores from Colorado. 

Wood, Walter A., Hoosick Falls, New York. — Eeaping and mowing 
machines. 

1 By the adoption of tlie alphabetical arrangement of the names in this list, already ex- 
plained, the name of the firm of Stein way and Sons is here made to follow that of Chickering 
&- Sons, but in the French official catalogue of awards the sequence is the reverse. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 317 

According to the rule of tlie Imperial Commission this medal is ab- 
sorbed in the first accompanied with a work of art. 

SILVER MEDALS. 

Alabajma, State of. — Short staple cotton. See Honorable Mention. 

American Button-hole Company, Philadelphia. — Semng and button- 
hole machines. 

Baker, Walter, & Co., Dorchester, Massachusetts. — Chocolates. 

Barnes, Surgeon General J. K., United States army, Washington. — 
Surgical instruments, hospital apparatus, &c. 

Bement & Dougherty, Philadelphia. — Machine tools. 

Bergner, Theodore, Philadelphia. — Co-operator — engineer of Messrs. 
William Sellers & Co. 

Bid WELL, J. C, Pittsbm^g, Pennsylvania. — Comstock's rotary spader. 

BiGELOW, H., Boston, Massachusetts. — Copper and minerals from Lake 
Superior. 

Blake, William P., San Francisco, California. — California minerals. 

Bond, William, & Son, Boston, Massachusetts. — ^Astronomical clock 
and chronograph. 

Brown, J. E., & Sharpe, Pro\ddence, Rhode Island. — Screw-cutting 
and milling machines. 

Burt, Edwin C, ISTew York city. — Machine sewed boots and shoes. 

California, State of. — Cereals. 

Cape, Culver & Co., 'New York city. — Hams. 

Chapin & Wells, Chicago, Illinois. — Model of a swing bridge. 

Chicago Board of Public Works, Chicago, Illinois. — Design of the 
lake tunnel. 

Clark Thread Company, Newark, I^Tew Jersey. — Cotton yarns. 

Collins & Co., New York city. — Steel ploughs. 

Colt's Patent Fire-arms Manufactuing Company, Hartford, Con- 
necticut. — Fire-arms. 

Cool, Furguson & Co., Glen's FaUs, New York. — Barrel machines. 

Crompton, George, Worcester, Massachusetts. — Loom for cloths. 

Culbertson, Blair & Co., Chicago, Illinois. — Salted meats. 

Daboll, C. L., New London, Connecticut. — Fog-signal. 

D'Aligny, H. F. Q. — Co-operator in the organization of the United 
States section. 

Darling, Bro^vn & Sharpe, Bangor, Maine, now of Providence, Rhode 
Island. — Steel measures. 

Delpit, a., & Co., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Snuff. 

Dixon, Joseph, & Co., Jersey city. New Jersey. — Plumbago crucibles. 

Douglas Axe Manufacturing Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — 
Edge tools. 

DuFFiELD, Charles, Chicago, Illinois. — Hams. 

Fairbanks, E. & T., & Company, St. Johnsbury, Yermont. — Scales. 
See, also, under Bronze Medals. ' 



318 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Florence Sewing Machine Company, New York city. — Sewing ma- 
cliines. 

FouRNiER, S., E"ew Orleans, Louisiana. — Electric clocks. 

Glen Coye Starch MANUFACTURiNa Company. — New York city. — 
^'Maizena" and starcli. 

GoTTHEiL, Edward, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Co-operator, services 
rendered to agriculture in Louisiana. 

GreoGt, Isaac, Philadelphia. — Brick-making machine. See, also. Bronze 
Medal. 

GuNTHER, C. G., & Sons, New York city. — Furs. 

Hall, James, & Son, Boston, Massachusetts. — Buggy. 

Howe, Dr. Samuel G., Boston, Massachusetts. — Works for the blind. 

Howe Machine Company, New York city. — Sewing machines. 

Illinois Central Eailroad Company, Chicago, Illinois. — Agricul- 
tural products. 

Illinois, State of. — Collection of minerals 5 farmer^s house ; school- 
house. See, also. Bronze Medal. 

Jackson, Dr. Charles T., co-operator. — Discovery of emery. 

Lamb, J. W., Eochester, New York 5 now of Ann Arbor, Michigan. — 
Knitting machine. 

Lawrence, E., Louisiana. — Sugars. 

Mason & Hamlin, New York and Boston.— Cabinet organs. 

Nevada, State of. — Silver and copper ores. 

New York Mills, New York. — Muslins. 

Opper, Morris, New York. — Loom for corsets. 

Park Brothers & Company, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Cast steel and 
edge tools. 

Partridge Fork Works, Leominster, Massachusetts. — Steel hayforks, 
rakes, &c. See, also. Bronze Medal. 

Pease, F. S., Buffalo, New, York. — Petroleum oils. See, also. Honor- 
able Mention. 

Perry, John G., Kingston, Eliode Island. — Mowing machine. 

This prize was gained in the field trials of agricultural machines. See, 

also. Bronze Medal. 

PiONE, Dr. J. B., San Francisco, California. — Minerals. 

Providence Tool Company, Providence, Ehode Island. — Peabody's 
patent fire-arms. 

Eemington, E., & Sons, Ilion, New York. — Fire-arms. 

EuTHERFORD, LEWIS M., New York city. — Astronomical photographs. 

SciiULTZ & Warker, New York city. — Mineral water apparatus. 

SciiUTTLER, Peter, Chicago, Illinois.— Wagon. 

Slater Woollen Mills, Webster, Massachusetts. — Woollen fabrics. 

Smith & W^esson, Springfield, Massachusetts. — Fire-arms and car- 
tridges. 

Spencer Eepeating Eifle Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Spencer 
rifles. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 319 

Taet, John B., Boston, Massacliiisetts. — Emery from Chester, Massa- 
cliusetts. 

TiEMANN, George, & Co., New York. — Surgical instruments. 

ToLLES, R. F., Canastota, New York. — Microscopes. 

Tucker, HirAjM, & Company, Boston. — Iron ornaments, imitation of 
bronze. 

United States Government. —Specimen of frame house for settlers. 

Waxes, William, Fort Lee, New Jersey. — Optical instruments. 

Ward^^t^ll, George J., Eutland, Vermont. — Stone-quarrying machine. 

Washington Mills, Boston, Massachusetts. — Woollen fabrics. See, 
also, Honorable Mention. 

Weed Sewing Machine Company, New York city. — Sewing machines. 

Whitney, Baxter D., Winchendon, Massachusetts. — Wood working 
machines. 

Windsor Manufacturing Company, Windsor, Vermont. — Ball's patent 
fire-arms. 

Wood Brothers, New Y^ork city. — Phaeton. 

Yale & Winn Manufacturing Company, Shelburne Falls, Massachu- 
setts. — Yale locks. 

BEONZE MEDALS. 

Abbey, Charles, & Sons, Philadelphia. — Dentists' gold foil. 

Ajmerican Lead Pencil Company, New York city. — Lead pencils. 

Appleton, D., & Company, New York. — Books. 

Bajbcock, Jajmes F., Boston, Massachusetts. — Eosin oil. 

Baltemore and Cuba Smelting and Mining Company, Baltimore, 
Maryland. — C opper. 

Barlow, Milton, Eichmond, Kentucky. — Planetarium. 

Bartram & Fanton Manufacturing Company, Danbury, Connec- 
ticut. — Sewing and button-hole machines. 

Beer, Sigismund, New York city. — Stereoscopic views. 

Belmont Oil Company, Philadelphia. — Oils. 

Brigham, E. D., treasurer Portage Lake Smelting Works, Boston, Mas- 
sachusetts. — Lake Superior copper. 

Brot\t^ & Level Life-saving Tackle Company, New York city. — 
Disengaging tackle for boats. 

Cahpenter, WILLIA3I S., New York city. — Collection of corn. 

Carroll, John W., Lynchburg, Virginia. — Smoking tobacco. 

CuM^iiNGS, WilliAjVI, & SoN, Jersey City, New Jersey. — Model of a 
hospital car. 

Day, Austin G., Seymour, Connecticut. — Lidelible pencils and lead pen- 
cils in India-rubber cases. See, also. Honorable Mention. 

Deere & Co., Moline, Illinois. — Steel ploughs. 

Degener & Weiler, New York city. — Printing presses. 

Departivient of Agriculture, Washington. — Collection of cereals. 

Diss Debar, J. H., Parker sburg, West Virginia. — Petroleum oils. 



320 PARIS UNIVEESAL EXPOSITION. 

Douglass MANUFACTUnma Company, ISTew York city. — Edge tools. 

Douglas, W. & B., Middletown, Connecticut. — Pumps. 

Fairbanks, E. & T., & Co., St. Johnsbury, Vermont. — Eailroad scale. 
See, also, under Sih^er Medals. 

Fairchild, Le Koy W., & Co., New York city. — Gold pens and 
cases. 

Gemunder, George, New York city. — Stringed instruments. 

GoDDARD, C. L., New York city. — Mestizo burring i)icker. 

GooDELL, D. H., Antrim, New Hampshire. — Apple parer. 

GooDENOUGH HoRSESHOE COMPANY, Ncw York city. — Horseshoes. 
See, also. Honorable Mention. 

Gregg, Isaac, Pliiladelpbia. — Model of a= brick machine. See, also. 
Silver Medal. 

Hadley Company, Holyoke, Massachusetts. — Sewing cotton. 

Harris, D. L., Springfield, Massachusetts. — Engine lathe. 

Haupt, Herman, Philadelphia. — Tunneling machine. 

Herring, Farrel & Sherman, New York city. — Fire and burglar proof 
safes. 

HoGLEN & Grafflin, Daji^ou, Ohio. — Tobacco-cutting machine. 

HoTCHKiss, H. G., Lyon, New York. — Oils of peppermint, &c. 

HoTCHKiss, L. B., Phelps, New York. — Oils of peppermint, &c. 

Houghton, H. O., & Co., Eiverside Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. — 
Books. 

House, Henry A., Bridgeport, Connecticut. — Co-operator in the estab- 
lishment of Wlieeler & Wilson. 

House, James A., Bridgeport, Connecticut. — Co-operator in the estab- 
lishment of Wheeler & Wilson. 

Howe, Amasa B., New York city. — Sewing machines. 

Howe Scale Company, Brandon, Vermont. — Scales. 

Hudson, E. D., New York city. — Artificial limbs. 

Humphres, John C, parish of Eapides, Louisiana. — Short staple cot- 
ton. 

Illinois, State of. — Cereals and flours. See silver medals. 

Jessup & Moore, Philadelphia. — Papers. 

Johnson, A. J., New York city. — Johnson's Family Atlas. 

Johnson, Bradish, Louisiana. — Sugars. 

Johnson & Lund, Philadelphia. — Artificial teeth. 

Justice, Philip S., Philadelphia. — Power hammer. 

Kansas, State of. — Collection of cereals. 

LiLiENTHAL, C. H., New York city. — Snuff and tobacco. 

LiLiENTHAL, THEODORE, Ncw Orleans, Louisiana. — Photographic ^dews. 

Louisiana, State of. — Portable cottage. 

Lyon, James B., & Co., Pittsburg, Pennsylvania. — Pressed glassware. 

Merriam, G. & C, Springfield, Massachusetts. — Webster's Illustrated 
Dictionary. 

Mission Woollen Mills, San Francisco, California. — Woollen fabrics. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 321 

Moody, S. K, ^NTew Orleans, Louisiana. — Shirts. 

MoKRis, Tasker & Co., Pliiladelpliia. — Wringing machine. 

MuiMFOED, Foster & Co., Detroit, Michigan. — Boot-trees, lasts, &c. 

Murphy's, William F., Sons, Philadelphia. — Blank books. 

Ohio, State of. — Collection of cereals. 

Olmstead, L. H., Kew York. — Friction clutch imlley. See, also, Honor- 
able Mention. 

Partridoe Fork Works, Leominster, Massachusetts. — Agricultural 
hand tools. See, also. Silver Medal. 

Pennsylvania, State of. — Anthracite coal. 

Perry, John G., Kingston, Khode Island. — Mowing machine. See, also. 
Silver Medal. 

Pickering & Davis, New York city. — Engine governors. 

Pratt & Wentworth, Boston, Massachusetts. — Heating apparatus. 

Band ALL, Samuel H., N^ew York city. — Mica. 

EiEDEL, G. A., Philadelphia. — Automatic boiler feeder. 

EiCHARDS, EiCHARD, Baciue, Wisconsin. — Wool. 

Boots, F. M. & P. H., Connersville, Indiana. — Botary blower. 

Boots, John B., New York city. — Steam engine. 

Sachse, F., & Son, Philadelphia. — Shirts. 

Sarrazin, J. P., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Tobacco. 

SCHEDLER, Joseph, Hudson city. New Jersey. — Terrestrial globes. 

ScHREiBER, Louis, New York city. — Brass instruments. 

Secombe Manufacturino Company, New York city. — Bibbon hand 
stamps. 

Shaw, Charles A., Biddeford, Maine. — Knitting machine. 

Shaw, Philander, Boston, Massachusetts. — Hot-air engine. 

Slater, Saiviuel, & Son, Webster, Massachusetts. — Cotton fabrics. 

Smith, McPherson & Donald, New York city. — Ales and porter. 

Southern Cotton-gin Company, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. — Cot- 
ton-gins. 

Squire, John J., New London, Connecticut. — Preserved fruits and vege- 
tables. 

Stursbero, H., New York city. — Beaver cloths. 

Sweet, John E., Syracuse, New York. — Comx30sing machine. 

Tamboury, a., parish of St. James, Louisiana. — Tobacco. 

Tiffany & Co., New York city. — Silverware. 

TowNSEND, WiSNER H., New York city. — Oil-cloths. 

Union Button-hole and Embroidery Company, Boston, Massachu- 
setts. — Button-hole machine. 

Van Deusen, J. B., New York city. — Model of the yacht Fleetwing. 

Warner, G. F., & Co., New Haven, Connecticut. — Malleable iron cast- 
ings. 

Watkins, C. E., San Francisco, California. — Photographs, landscapes. 

Wickersha:m Nail Company, Boston, Massachusetts. — Nail-cutting 
machine. 



322 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Williams, Thomas C, & Co., Danville, Yirginia. — Chewing and smok- 
ing tobacco. 
Wisconsin State Agricultural Society. — Agricultural products. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Collection of minerals. 
Wisconsin, State of. — Collection of cereals and flours. 
Wright, E. & G. A., Philadelphia. — Perfumery. 

HOl^OEABLE MENTIONS. 

Alabama. — Short staple cotton. See i^o. 30. 

Allen, John, & Son, New York city.— Artificial teeth. 

American Steam Gauge Company, Boston, Massachusetts.— Steam 

gauges. 
Atherican Wine Company, St. Louis, Missouri. — Sparkling wines. 
Andrews, William D., & Brother, l^ew York city.— Oscillating steam 

engine. 
Avery, D. B., Petite Anse, Louisiana. — Rock salt. 
Bacon, S. T., Boston, Massachusetts. — Cracker machinery. 
Baker, George E., St. Louis, Missouri. — Dough-kneading machine. 
Bates, E., Philadelphia. — Instruments to cure stammering. 
Bell Factory, Huntsville, Alabama. — Cotton fabrics. 
BuENA YiSTA YINICULTURAL SOCIETY, Sau Francisco, California. — 

Sparkling Sonoma wine. 
Borden, Gail, New York city. — Extract of beef. 
Bottler, Charles, Cincinnati, Ohio.— Sparkling Catawba wine. 
Bourgeois, E., New Orleans, Louisiana. — Tobacco. 
Brandon Kaolin and Paint Company, Brandon, Yermont.^Speci- 

mens of paints. 
Bray & Hayes, Boston, Massachusetts. — Preserved lobster. 
Brougi-iton & Moore, New York city. — Oilers, cocks, &c. 
Browne, D. Jay, Eoxbury, Massachusetts. — Enamelled leather. 
Chipman, George W., & Co., Boston, Massachusetts. — Carpet lining. 
Clark Steam and Fire Eegulator Company, New York city. — 

Steam and fire regulator. 
CoHN, M., New York city. — Crinoline. 
CozzENS, Frederick S., New York city. — Cigars. 
Dart, Henry C, & Co., New York city. — Eotary steam engine. 
Davidson, George, Washington. — Sextant. 
Davidson, John, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Sugars. 
Day, Austin G., Seymour, Connecticut. — Artificial India-rubber. See, 

also. No. 120. 
Duffy, Joseph, Paterson, New Jersey. — Designs for improvements in 

iron-clad vessels. 
DwiGiiT, George, Jr., & Co., Springfiehl, Massachusetts. — Steam pump. 
Edson, William, Boston, Massachusetts. — Hygrodeik. 
Elsberg, Dr. Louis, New York city. — Specimens of peat fuel. 
Empire Sewing Machine Company, New York city. — Sewing machines. 



UNITED STATES SECTION. 323 

Fkies, Alexandre, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Flavoring extracts. 

Glass, Peter, Barton, Wisconsin. — Mosaic tables. 

GooDENOUGH HoRSESHOE COMPANY, Kew York city. — Horseshoes. 

See, also, Bronze Medal. 
Gould, J. D., Boston, Massachusetts. — Mica. 
Herring, Silas C, New York city. — Bullard's hay tedder. 
Hicks Engine Company, New York city. — Steam engine. 
HiRSCH, eTosEPH, Chicago, Illinois. — Albiunen, glycerine, «Sic. 
HoLLiDAY, T. & C, New York city. — Aniline colors. 
Howard, Dr. BenjAjVIIN, New York city. — Ambulance, «&c. 
Howell & Brother, Philadelphia. — Wall papers. 
Iowa, State of. — Collection of cereals. 
Jackson, J. H., New Yqrk city. — Minerals and fossils. 
Kaldenberg & Son, New York city. — Meerschaum x:)ipes. 
KoRN, Charles, Wurtsboro', New York. — Calf-skin leather. 
Balance & Grosjean, New York city. — House-furnishing hardware. 
LiNTHicuM, W. O., New York city. — Cloth clothing. 
Longworth's Wine-house, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Sparkling wines. 
McCoRMiCK, J. J., Williamsburg, New York. — Skates. 
Marietta & Gale's Fork Petroleum Company, Marietta, Ohio. — 

Petroleum oil. 
Metropolitan Washing Machine Company, New York city. — 

Clothes wringers. 
Metropolitan Washing Machine Company, New York city. — W^ash- 

ing machines. 
Minnesota, State of. — Collection of cereals. 
MoEHRiNG, H. G., agent of the Yolcanic Oil and Coal Company of West 

Virginia, Philadelphia. — Yolcanic lubricating oil. 
MoNTAGNE & Carlos, New Orleans, Louisiana. — Black moss for uphol- 
sterers. 
Morris, Tasker & Co., Philadelphia. — Pipe-cutting machine. 
New Hayen Clock Company, New Haven, Connecticut. — Clocks. 
Olmstead, L. H., New York. — Machine tools. See, also. Bronze Medals. 
Oneida Co^eviunity, Oneida, New York. — Preserved fruits. 
Page, E. W., New York city. — Oars. 
Paul, J. F., & Co., Boston. — Specimens of wood. 

Pease, F. S., Buffalo, New York,— Pnemnatic pump. See, also. No. 82. 
Perot, Morris T., Philadelphia.— Medicine Avagon. 
Pleasant Valley- Wine Company, Hammondsport, New York.— 

Brandy. 
Portland Packing Company, Portland, Maine.— Preserved lobster 

and vegetables. 
Prentice, J., New York city.— Cigar machine. 
PuRRiNGTON, George, Jr., New York city.— Carpet sweeper. 
EoBiNSON, Jai\ies A., New York city. — Ericsson hot-air engine. 
Sabatier, G., Plaquemine parish, Louisiana. — Sugars. 



324 PARIS UNIVERSAL EXPOSITION. 

Selpho, William^ & Son, N^ew York city. — Artificial limbs. 

Shelden, Joseph, l^ew Haven, Connecticut. — Water-pressure regulator. 

Smith, Eobert M., Baltimore, Maryland. — Petroleum oils. 

Steam Syphon Company, ^ew York city. — Steam syphon pump. 

Stephenson, John, & Company, New York city. — Street railway carriage. 

Stockton, Samuel W., Philadelphia. — Artificial teeth. 

Tallman & Collins, Janesville, Wisconsin — Perfumery. 

Taylor, Charles F., JSTew York city. — Therapeutic apparatus. 

Tilden, Howard, Boston. — Sifter, tobacco-cutter, and egg-beater. 

TowNSEND Brothers, I^ew York city. — Preserved fruits and oysters. 

United States Sanitary Commission. — Camp material. See Gold 
Medal. 

Waltemeyer, Jacob, Baltimore, Maryland. — Preserved fruits. 

Ward, J., & Co., 'New York city. — Clothes wringers. 

Ward, J., & Co., New York city. — Washing machines. 

Washinoton Mills, Lawrence, Massachusetts. — Shawls. See, also. Sil- 
ver Medals. 

Wellman, C, New York city. — Saddles. 

Werk, M., & Son, Cincinnati, Ohio. — Sparkling wines. 

Wharton, Joseph, Philadelphia. — Mckel, cobalt, and zinc, 

WiLLAiiD Manupacturino Cojupany, New York city.— Photographic 
camera tubes and lenses. 

Williams, C. C, New York city. — Fruits preserved in sj^^up. 

Williams Silk Manufacturing Company, Bridgeport, Connecticut.— 
Silk twist for sewing machines. 

WiNSLOW, J. B., New York city. — Wood-moulding machine. 

YouNO, Isaac, Leavenworth, Kansas. — Specimens of wood. 

Zallee, John C, St. Louis, Missouri. — Clothing. 

sijmmaey. 

Grand prizes - - - - - - - ^ 

Artist's medal 1 

Gold medals 1^ 

Silver medals '^^ 

Bronze medals ^^ 

Honorable mentions 9^ 

Total awards 2^1 



CHEVALIER OF THE LEGION OF HONOE. 

By a decree of the Emperor the follomng gentlemen were created 
Chevaliers of the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honor of France; 
C. H. McCoRMiCK, Chicago, Illinois. 
Walter A. Wood, Hoosick Falls, New York. 
Chickerino, C. F., New York. 
Elias Howe, Jr. 



ERRATA. 

Page 24, for Trojou, read Troyon. 

Page 59, et infra, for furniture and other objects for the use of dwellings, read furniture 
and other objects for use in dwellings. 

Page 64, 8t,h line from the bottom, insert comma after " this." 

Page 80, for Montague, read Moptagne. 

Page 101, for Vienna, read Vienne. 

Page 102, for Vanguelin, read Vauquelin. 

Page 102, for National Association of Wool Growers, read National Association of Wool 
Manufacturers. 

Page 103, for Oiseet Ere, read Oise-et-Eure. 

Page 105, for fuchshine, read fuchsine. 

Page 133 to 146 the head lines should be changed to conform to the classes. 

Page 149, 5th line, fox pounds, resbd poods. 

Page 153, for Lannet, read Lannes. 

Page 154, for usages, read uses. 

Page 265, for Madona, read Madrona. 

Page 287, for steam, read steam pump. 

Page 315, at the foot of the page, the title of the catalogue should be corrected to read as 
follows : Catalogue Ofificiel des Exposants Recompenses par le Jury International. Paris, 
E. Dentu, Libraire-Editeur de la Commission Imp^riale. 



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